Article: ‘Gender differences that appear from a Self-Determination Theory survey of JHS students’ by David Ockert

[ELTWeekly Volume 6, Issue 5 | February 24, 2014]

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There are several types of motivational theories and much has been written on various theories of EFL learner motivation (e.g., Dörnyei, 2009a; Dornyei, 1998; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009; Gardner, 2001; Oxford, 1994; Oxford & Shearin, 1994). Ur (1996) proposed a distinction of two types of motivation for the EFL context. She describes intrinsically motivated learners are “willing or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress” (p. 175) where the extrinsically motivated ones are engaged in the activities due to “the influence of some kind of external incentive” (p. 277) – in other words, the desire to please parents, teachers, friends, or to succeed on tests such as the TOEIC® or TOEFL® tests. Furthermore, according to Amibile (1989) in regards to children, intrinsic motivation has four parts: 1) having love for and even an obsession with the task at hand, 2) a sense of dedication to the work over time, 3) a view of the project as combining work and play, and 4) a concentration on the activity itself. Her research gives us an even deeper understanding of how persons who are intrinsically motivated feel when engaged in a task. They see the activity as both work and play, and they have a love for the task at hand in addition to concentrating on the task itself.

Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) has been used in a variety of fields over the past twenty five years with consistent results. Within our field, much of the research has consistently pointed to the importance of motivation from within (Deci & Flaste, 1996), whether defined in terms of intrinsic or integrative motivation (as opposed to an extrinsic or instrumental motivation). This motivation from within is believed to sustain the learning process more effectively than motivation that is externally regulated or controlled by the teacher and the research evidence thus far supports this view (e.g. Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000), and the message for educators clearly shows that in order to help our students, we need to find ways of finding, supporting and maintaining students’ own motivation to learn (Ushioda, 2006). In addition, recent research to recast the integrative and instrumental orientations (Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972) by Noels et al. into the self-determination motivation framework has helped to “organize systematically many of the reasons for learning a L2” (p. 24). 

The L2 learning experience: SDT motivational orientations in EFL

Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) has been used in a variety of fields over the past twenty five years with consistent results. According to Dörnyei (2001) regarding SDT in educational contexts, there are three distinctions on the SDT continuum. First, there is amotivation (AM; having no desire to perform a task or engage in an activity). Next is extrinsic motivation (EM; engaging in an activity in order to achieve an external reward such as good grades, a raise in salary or to please others). Finally, and of particular interest for this study, there is intrinsic motivation (IM; Deci & Ryan, 1985). IM has been defined as the “inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 56).

Furthermore, SDT subdivides EM into four categories from least self-determined to most self-determined as follows: external regulation (i.e., motivation coming entirely from external sources such as rewards or threats); introjected regulation (i.e., externally imposed rules that students accept as norms they should follow in order not to feel guilty); identified regulation (i.e., engaging in an activity because the individual highly values it and sees its usefulness); integrated regulation (i.e., activity involving choiceful behavior that is fully assimilated with the individual’s other values, needs, and identity” [italics added]) (see Dörnyei, 2001, p. 47).

In SDT research in education, much of the research has consistently pointed to the importance of intrinsic motivation (see Deci & Flaste, 1996; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier & Ryan, 1991). This ‘motivation from within’ is believed to sustain the learning process more effectively than motivation that is externally regulated or controlled by the teacher and the research evidence thus far supports this view (e.g. Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The message for educators clearly shows that in order to help our students, we need to have ways of finding, supporting and maintaining students’ own motivation to learn (Ushioda, 2006).

SDT research in the JEFL environment involving university students by Yashima, Noels, Shizuka, Takeuchi, Yamane and Yoshizawa, (2009) used an SDT survey in Japanese which was adapted from one used by Noels, Pelletier, Clément and Vallerand (2003). These surveys include three sub-categories of IM: knowledge (i.e., doing an activity for the feelings associated with exploring new ideas and developing knowledge), accomplishment (i.e., for the sensations related to attempting to master a task or achieve a goal) and stimulation (i.e., for the sensations stimulated by performing the task, such as aesthetic appreciation or fun and excitement) (see Noels et al., 2003, p. 38). Their research also revealed that female students overall show a higher level of self-regulation, indicating that “gender is a crucial dimension of learner profiles” (Yashima et al., 2009, p. 58) amongst university students. Kobayashi (2002) has also reported that female high school students have more interest and positive attitudes toward learning English.

The results of the SDT survey in this study will determine whether there are differences and/or similarities in the responses amongst the sub-sections as shown in the previous studies. If so, whether the curriculum and/or the use of video in the classroom may influence the motivational orientations of these students can be tested after the second administration of the survey. Furthermore, differences in attitudes toward learning English by gender will also be determined.

Language learner Ideal L2 Selves

In their large-scale longitudinal survey, Dörnyei and Csizer (2002) speculated that the process of personal  identification theorized to make up the construct of ‘integrativeness’ might be more readily explained as an internal process of identification within the person’s ‘self’ concept, rather than identification with an external reference group (p. 453). Dörnyei (2005; 2009b) developed this line of thought further by drawing on the psychological theory of ‘possible selves’ (Higgins, 1987; Markus & Nurius, 1986). Accordingly, this theory provides that as a basis of self-identity, possible selves represent an individual’s idea of “what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming”, and therefore “provide a conceptual link between the self-concept and motivation” (Markus & Nurius, 1986, p. 157).

Dörnyei (2005; 2009b) builds on this theory of possible selves to develop a new conceptualization of L2 motivation, known as the “L2 Motivational Self System” (p. 9). The central concept is the ideal self, which refers to the representation of the attributes that someone would like to possess in the future. Accordingly, this theory provides that as a basis of self-identity, possible selves represent an individual’s idea of “what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming”, and therefore “provide a conceptual link between the self-concept and motivation” (Markus & Nurius, 1987, p. 157). Dornyei (2005) builds on this theory of possible selves to develop a new conceptualization of L2 motivation, what he refers to as the L2 Motivational Self System (p. 9). The central concept is the ideal self, which refers to the representation of the attributes that someone would ideally like to possess (i.e. a representation of personal hopes, aspirations, or wishes). Along with the ideal self is the ought-to self, an identification with the attributes that the individual believes he or she ought to possess, such as one’s duty, obligations or responsibilities. A basic hypothesis is that if proficiency in the target language is an integral part of one’s ideal or ought-to self, this identification alone provides the motivation to learn the language. To sum up, it is due to the individual’s psychological desire to become more and more like their desired possible future self (Dornyei & Ushioda, 2009) that provides the motivation for foreign language study.

Yashima et al., (2004) postulate that students “who clearly visualize ‘possible’ or ‘ideal’ English-using selves are likely to make an effort to become more proficient and develop WTC” (p. 143). Specifically, the identified regulation items on the SDT scale (see below), refer to carrying out an activity to achieve a specific goal such as learning an L2 and “appear to capture a positive motivational disposition and conceivably relates to the kind of self or self-image that a person identifies with.” (Yashima et al., 2009, p. 55). Adding to the self literature with research conducted in Indonesia, Lamb (2004) used a qualitative approach to gather data via closed and open questionnaire items, classroom observations and student interviews. His research from 11-12 year old junior high school students has led him to speculate that their motivation to learn English could be due to their pursuing a bi-cultural identity. He speculates that it may be a dual-faceted identity as a global or world citizen in addition to a national identity as an Indonesian which drives them to learn English (Lamb, 2004). These young learners of English may thus aspire to “a vision of an English-speaking globally-involved but nationally responsible future self” (Lamb, 2004, p. 16). He further speculates that changes in motivation to learn English may partly be explained by “ongoing processes of identification, especially during the formative years of adolescence” (Lamb, 2004, p. 3). The use of the SDT survey in this research will help us understand if JEFL students as young as thirteen years old are already developing an Ideal L2 Self.

Methods

Participants

The participants in this research study were 68 male and 72 female (N=140) second year Japanese junior high school students in Nagano City, Japan. The students are enrolled at the same school and are in four classes for all courses except English. For courses in the English program, they are divided into six smaller groups of less than thirty students per class. Student ages range from 13 to 14 with a median age of 13 years and approximately nine months.

Materials

A motivation survey consisting of 21 questions was used. It was administered in Japanese. However, it was adapted from Yashima et al. (2009) to be at a suitable reading level for the age of the students involved in the project. It used a six point Likert scale system with numerical values from 1 (That is not applicable to me at all) to 6 (That absolutely applies to me).

Procedures

The participants in this research project are all students at a junior high school located in Nagano city, Japan. The survey was filled out in pencil during regular class time.

Results

Means, standard deviations, correlation coefficients and Cronbach’s alpha of the SDT survey sub-sections are presented in Table 1. The Amotivation items are at the top followed by the three extrinsic categories, with the three intrinsic motivation categories at the bottom of the table. The ranking by mean score is given at the left in parenthesis with the mean score in brackets between the rank and item in English. As can be seen, there are some rather large differences amongst several of the item responses.

Of particular interest are the three items in the Identified Regulation sub-section. The number 1 ranked item, with a mean score of 4.09, is Because I want to be a person who can speak a foreign language. The second highest ranked item, with a mean score of 3.91, is Because I want to be a person who can speak English. The third highest item has a mean score of 3.45 and is Because I think it is important for my personal development. The SDT posits that the scale results should be on a continuum, with the IM sections more closely correlated than those further to the left. In the case of IM Stimulation, this is certainly the case. However, from the other extreme, Amotivation has the strongest negative correlation with Identified Regulation. This result certainly shows that these students value learning English for future use.

Table 1. The SDT survey sub-section correlation matrix and Cronbach’s alpha (N=140)

	M	SD	Amotivation	EM Ext. Reg.	EM Int. Reg.	EM Ident. Reg.	IM Know.	IM Accom.
(Cronbach’s alpha)			(.75)	(.68)	(.69)	(.75)	(.81)	(.81)
1 Amotivation	2.41	1.33
2 EM External Regulation	2.64	1.30	-.15
3 EM Introjected Regulation	2.85	1.27	-.08	.60**
4 EM Identified Regulation	3.81	1.46	-.48**	.49**	.53**
5 IM Knowledge	3.10	1.28	-.33**	.65**	.57**	.70**
6 IM Accomplishment	2.99	1.22	-.39**	.63**	.52**	.70**	.81**
7 IM Stimulation	2.87	1.33	-.34**	.50**	.51**	.61**	.75**	.72**

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed); Cronbach’s alpha for IM Stimulation is .83

These results are similar to those of Noels et al. (2003) and Yashima et al. (2009) involving university students, indicating that age may not be a significant factor for the SDT results. Also, the very high negative correlation between Identified Regulation and Amotivation indicates that these students are both highly motivated by an Ideal L2 Self, and that this offsets any negative feelings toward learning EFL. This analysis clearly indicates that Dörnyei’s Ideal L2 Self is the appropriate motivational framework within which to discuss these results and formulate a long-term learning plan for Japanese JHS students.

Table 2. The SDT motivational orientation sub-section Means and SD as a function of gender

Gender	Amotivation	Extrinsic Regulation	Introjected Regulation	Identified Regulation	IM Knowledge	IM Accomplish	IM Stimulation
Male (N=37)	2.72[1.51]	2.56 [1.26]	2.79 [1.34]	3.38 [1.51]	2.86 [1.37]	2.86 [1.23]	2.78 [1.45]
Female (N=35)	2.31 [1.17]	2.88 [1.28]	2.88 [1.28]	4.11 [1.37]	3.12 [1.24]	2.90 [1.17]	2.74 [1.23]

The results of the means score of the seven sub-sections of the SDT survey by gender are shown in Table 2. Both male and female students reported similar scores on most sub-sections, with the exception of both Identified Regulation and Amotivation. These results support previous findings by Yashima et al. (2009) that gender plays a role in self-regulation, apparently even amongst students as young as those surveyed for this research project.

Discussion and conclusions

This paper has presented the results of a survey based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) in a Japanese English as a foreign language junior high school learning environment. The evidence clearly indicates that Dörnyei’s Ideal L2 Self-System is the appropriate motivational framework within which to discuss these results. These students have a desire to learn English as a foreign language. There are several reasons why learners may lose interest in learning another language: time pressure; the fact that their friends do not use the language; boredom; they see no future use for it; and other interests, to name a few. By keeping the students focused on how they can use English in the future – a home stay, speech contest, travel abroad – educators can help keep their Ideal L2 Self vision alive, thereby maintaining interest and motivation.

The author believes that future, longitudinal studies which track student progress based on gender, future goals, and the intensity to learn English would of great benefit for teachers, students, and educational systems around the world.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the students and teachers who helped with this research project; Bob Calfee for his invaluable assistance with the statistical analysis; and the editor for his assistance in bringing this paper to press. This project was made possible with the aid of a JALT Research Grant. Any errors are the author’s.

Biodata

David Ockert has a M.Ed. from Temple University and researches student motivation, learning strategies, and their relationships between specific classroom activities, either traditional or task-based; enjoys developing online social-collaborative learning platforms; and also likes educational system development.

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Appendix A. The SDT survey Cronbach’s alpha, means and standard deviations (N=140)

Amotivation (=.75)	Mean	SD
I don’t know why I must study English. Plainly speaking, I’d rather do anything other than study English.	2.76	1.42
Honestly, I don’t know, I truly have the impression of wasting my time in studying English.	2.30	1.23
As for studying English, I cannot come to see why I study English.	2.18	1.27
External Regulation (=.68)
As for studying English, I do so in order to get a more prestigious job later on.	2.36	1.15
As for studying English, I do so because I have the impression that it is expected of me.	2.76	1.41
As for studying English, I do so in order to have a better salary later on.	2.77	1.28
Introjected Regulation (=.69)
Because I would feel ashamed if I couldn’t speak to my friends from the English-speaking community in English.	3.00	1.27
Because if I can speak English, I will be aware that I am an internationally-minded person.	2.96	1.35
Because I would feel guilty if I didn’t know English.	2.58	1.16
Identified Regulation (=.75)
Because I want to be a person who can speak a foreign language.	4.09	1.48
Because I think it is important for my personal development.	3.45	1.32
Because I want to be a person who can speak English.	3.91	1.51
Intrinsic Motivation (Knowledge) (=.81)
For the pleasure that I experience in knowing more about English literature.	2.97	1.20
For the satisfied feeling I get in finding out new things.	3.23	1.35
Because I enjoy the feeling of acquiring knowledge about the English-speaking community and their way of life.	3.11	1.29
Intrinsic Motivation (Accomplishment) (=.81)
For the pleasure I experience when surpassing myself in my English studies.	3.08	1.18
For the enjoyment I experience when I grasp a difficult construct in English.	2.98	1.23
For the satisfaction I feel when I am in the process of accomplishing difficult exercises in English.	2.90	1.25
Intrinsic Motivation (Stimulation) (=.83)
For the “high” I feel when hearing foreign languages spoken.	2.95	1.30
For the “high” that I experience while speaking English.	2.87	1.35
For the pleasure I get from hearing English spoken by native speakers.	2.80	1.34

Adapted from Yashima et al. (2009), which was adapted from Noels et al. (1999).

Appendix B. The Japanese version of the motivation survey

自己決定度尺度

下の1)から21)番までの質問を次の(1)から(6)まで一つ選んで○をして下さい。

 

(1)   それは私に全く適用されません。 =>  (6) それは私に完全に適用されます。

 

1）英語を勉強するのは英語の学習において自らの限界を越える喜びを得たいからだ。

2）英語が話されているのを聞くとわくわくするので。

3）なぜ英語を勉強しなければいけないのかわからない。はっきり言って英語なんてどうでもよい。

4）英語を勉強するのはまわりから期待されているような気がするからだ。

5）英語が話せると国際人であるということが自覚できるから。

6）外国語をひとつは話せる人になりたいので。

7）英語を勉強するのは英語圏の文学に関する知識を深めていくのが楽しいからだ。

8）英語を勉強するのは英語の難しい構文を理解できた時の喜びを得たいからだ。

9）英語で話す時、わくわくするので。

10）正直言って、私は英語の勉強は時間の無駄だという印象をもっている。

11）英語を勉強するのは、卒業後（もっと）名声・権威のある仕事につきたいからだ。

12）英語が話せる友達に会ったとき英語が話せないと恥ずかしいので。

13）英語を勉強するのは自己の成長や自己啓発につながるので。

14）英語を勉強するのは、新しいことを知ると満足感を味わえるからだ。

15）英語を勉強するのは、英語の難しい練習問題をやり遂げたときに味わえる満足感を得たいからだ。

16）ネーティブ・スピーカーが英語を話しているのを聞くと楽しくなるので。

17）英語を勉強していると、自分はいったい何をしているんだろうと思ってしまう。

18）英語を勉強するのは（より）高い収入を得られるようになるためである。

19）英語が話せないとうしろめたく感じるので。

20）英語が話せる人になりたいと思っているので。

21）英語を勉強するのは英語圏の人々や生活様式についての知識を得るのが楽しいからだ。

Adapted from Yashima et al. (2009), which was adapted from Noels et al. (1999).