Shyam Ji works as Lecturer in English NIET, Gr. Noida.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the syntactic and stylistic features of Josef Essberger’s short story The Winepress. Theory followed to study the features of language in this story is the theory as propounded by Leech et al.(1981). The paper first of all gives a brief introduction to the author, a brief account of the story, and then it presents an overview of stylistics and the tools to be applied in the analysis. On the basis of the proposed theory a comprehensive analysis of the story in terms of Lexis, Grammar, Figures of Speech, Context and Cohesion is to be carried out. Finally it summarizes the analysis, discusses the limitations of the research and also scope for further research. This paper is not written with a view to depict an overall picture of the writing style of Josef Essberger as a writer, for even those text linguists as eminent as Geoffrey N. Leech and Michael H .Short (1981) maintain that it is difficult to generalize about the style of an author. The main objective of this paper is, therefore, to find out the artistic beauty of the story through the writer’s choice of language.

Introduction: An overview of Stylistics

Stylistic analysis which focuses on role of the linguistic codes of the text contributes much to the development of literary criticism.  This is widely accepted by the critics that a literary text can be comprehended better if it is studied in parallel with stylistic analysis. The aim of stylistic study is to interpret the literary meaning and aesthetic effect of literary texts linguistically. M. A. K. Halliday sees ‘grammar’ as a network of systems of relationships which account for all semantically relevant choices in language, which is as well the standpoint of stylistic analysis. In Cohesion in English (1976), Halliday maintains that there are three major components in linguistic system: THE IDEATIONAL, THE INTERPERSONAL and THE TEXTUAL (p. 22-23). The Ideational component is related to the expression of ‘content’. It is divided into two parts: the Experimental and the Logical. The ‘experimental’ reveals the context of culture while the ‘logical’ expresses the abstract logical relations. The Interpersonal reveals the speaker’s angle in a particular situation. It expresses the motive of the speaker in saying anything at all. The Textual component helps in forming the text. It tries to find out the resources that make a text coherent whether they are textual or situationally conditioned.

Halliday makes an analysis of the language of William Golding’s novel The Inheritors, in the light of what he calls the ideational function of language – “His analysis is revealing in the way it relates precise linguistic observation to literary effect” (Leech & Short, 1981, p. 32).

Eminent German linguist-critic Leo Spitzer (1887-1960), known as the father of literary stylistics, maintains that the smallest detail of language can unlock the “soul” of a literary work. According to him, the task of stylistics is to provide a hard-and-fast technology of analysis. The image used by Spitzer of the “philological circle”, the circle of understanding, however, seems to suggest that there is no logical starting point. Halliday and Spitzer may vary in their approaches to the analysis of literary texts, the stylistic studies carried out by both, nevertheless, bear solid evidence.

Literary stylistics explains the relation between language and artistic function but as far as the issue of presenting a satisfactory and reliable methodology for prose style analysis is concerned, both Spitzer and Halliday seemed helpless. The only way out of this state of unproductivity is to read and reread. Two text linguists: Geoffrey N. Leech and Michael H. Short; in the year 1981, who with combined strenuous effort, bravely stepped into the breach and published Style in Fiction: A linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. The book later became well established as a course text book for both students of English language and English literature. The book covers all those things which previous studies lacked. It is in this work that an overall “theory” or “model” of prose style is put forward. This book provides such tools of analysis which can be applied to any text.

The Author

Josef Essberger is better known as E-learning resource provider rather than as a writer of literary corpus. Founder of Englishclub.com, Essberger is a British born author. Since 1990, his EnglishClub.com, My.EnglishClub.com, TEFL.net, EslAdmin.com, EslDepot.com, EasyEnglish.com, SmallWorldFriends.com are the best seller websites devoted to English teaching and learning. He founded the EnglishClub for ESL learners and teachers in 1997, and the following year founded TEFL.net, a site dedicated to English teachers. In 2009, EnglishClub reinvented with a background in publishing and photography. Josef is the author of several articles, short stories (The Chapel, The Metro and The Winepress) and books, including a travel guide entitled Monopoly London. In association with EnglishClub and TEFL.net, which provide free resources and materials for English teaching and learning, Josef Essberger also owns and operates eslDepot.com. This website sells books, games, videos and other resources for English learners and teachers.

Brief account of the story

Charles Jousselin de Gruse, a French diplomat and the narrator of the story, one day while entertaining his ‘The Dutch’, ‘The German’ and ‘The English guests’, being an amusing raconteur, started narrating the story of a young man named Pierre who while in Madagascar, fell for a girl named Faniry. Within five months, they got married and started living happily. After a happy life of three years in Madagascar, Pierre got a telegram informing him about the death of his parents and brother. He returned to France and settled there to look after his ancestral wine yard. Being jealous of all the females working for Pierre, with many accusations against him, Faniry began to quarrel with him and a wide gap was created between them. One Friday evening, Faniry, heavily drunk, entered the winery and flung her arms around Pierre’s neck but he didn’t show any love. In the heat of anger and desire, she attacked him with a knife. Somehow, escaping from her, he pushed her off. Accidently, a screw of the press caught at her hair and dragged her in. Pierre didn’t pay any heed to the screams of Faniry. When he made sure that the game was over, he switched the current off. “Faniry’s blood had mixed in the wine.” He told everyone that she had left for Madagascar.  The wine of Pierre got award after award and it was declared to be the best vintage. Now the guests interpreted that they were drinking that damned woman in their cups. The host, clearing the doubt, told them that ‘Everyone knows that the best vintage should come first.’

The story is really a tragedy, an irony of fate. It does explain a lot, sometimes about life, about marriage, especially the importance of selecting a better partner and also feelings like jealousy and anger etc. which never give happiness but make people weak, both physically and intellectually. The story shows terrible things about drinking; wine is so bad that in its intoxication people feel helpless to make decision and to control themselves. Intoxicated people do the horrible deeds that Pierre and Faniry did.

Methodology

Leech and Short (1981, p. 75-82) provide us a checklist of stylistic categories which enable us to collect data on a fairly systematic basis. The categories are placed under four general headings: lexical categories, grammatical categories, figures of speech, cohesion and context. Under each rubric, smaller-scaled categories are placed to give a range of data which may be examined in relation to the literary effect of the text.

A: Lexical categories

General

Nouns

Adjectives

Verbs

B: Grammatical categories

Sentence Types

Sentence Complexity

Clause Types

Clause Structure

Noun Phrases

Verb Phrases

Other Phrase Types

C: Figures of speech

Grammatical and Lexical Schemes

Phonological Schemes

D: Context and cohesion

Cohesion

Context

But even Leech and Short themselves accept the incompleteness of this overall model, for “these are attempts to give shape and system to a field of study in which much remain unclear, and hidden beneath the threshold of observation.” (Leech &Short, 1981, p. 33) The study of the relation between linguistic form and literary function can not be reduced to mechanical objectivity. In both the literary and linguistic spheres much rests on the intuition and personal judgment of the reader. Therefore, in order to bring into the spotlight what appears to be the most significant linguistic features of The Winepress, necessary adaptation is to be made of the model above, which is going to be applied in the actual analysis that follows.

Analysis

The story is divided into two types of text: narrative and the direct speech. We find that Charles Jousselin de Gruse is the narrator of the story of Pierre and Faniry. While drinking, the gossiping among the host and the guests is almost in the direct speech with a minimal narration, while the story that is told by Charles Jousselin de Gruse is almost made up of narrative. The story told by the host consists of six paragraphs. Paragraph one, two, three, four and five are entirely made up of narrative. The only mixed paragraph is six, where the first sentence is in direct speech. Apart from this, there is a little dialogue between paragraph four and five.

Lexis

There are 1484 words in this story of which 585 words are unique and 391 words are non-repeated. The largest word is of fifteen letters. Three letter words are the most frequent i.e. 24.6%. 18.1% words contain four letters, 15.4% words contain two letters and the percentage of five letter words and of six letter words is 11.8 and 11.2 respectively. The average of letters per word is 4.41, average of syllables per word is 1.52 and the average of words per sentence is 10.91. If we look at the frequency of words, we find that the most frequently used word is the third person pronoun ‘he’ which occurs 38 times creating a cumulative effect. The third person pronoun ‘she’ is repeated 21 times. Other most frequent pronouns are: ‘his’-27 times, ‘me’ – 2 times, ‘herself’- 4 times’, ‘you’-11 times, ‘him’-11 times, ‘her’-14 times, ‘it’- 18 times and ‘I’-11 times. Some other words which have been repeated most frequently are: ‘and’-37 times, ‘guests’-10 times, ‘said’-12 times, ‘wine’-8 times etc.

Above statistical analysis shows that, in keeping with the subject, the vocabulary is simple and homely but slightly literary or archaic flavor here and there. No slang word is found throughout the story. We find only one profane word ‘screw’ which occurs two times in the story. The word ‘screw’ can be treated as a slang word also as it refers to ‘an act of having sex’ and ‘a partner in sex’ also. Some of the words which occur in the story do not convey the dictionary meaning. For example the word ‘game’ as defined by Oxford Dictionary is ‘an activity or a sport with rules in which people or teams compete with each other’ but in The Winepress, this word refers to the ‘hunted birds’.

If we examine verbs, we find that most of the verbs are in the past and continuous forms. The verb ‘said’ has been repeated twelve times, ‘made’ –five times, ‘looked’, ‘agreed’, ‘asked’, ‘like’, ‘drinking’, ‘came’, ‘paused’, ‘took’, ‘told’, ‘married’ etc. have been repeated three times and ‘lived’, ‘convinced’, ‘turned’, ‘picked’, ‘continued’, ‘started’, etc. occur twice. The simple use of vocabulary suggests Josef’s style, especially in the context of his short story The Winepress, is restricted. He does not use abstract terms for the things to be described.

To create visual imagery and sensuousness, the author uses many adjectives like ‘bulbous’, ‘ravishing’, ‘idyllic’, ‘grief-stricken’, ‘fathomless’, ‘elegant’ etc. Most of the adjectives have been used to characterize Pierre and Faniry. For example

He was a likeable man, cultivated of course, with a well deserved reputation as a generous host and an amusing raconteur.

The adjectives used in this sentence tell about the personality and nature of Charles Jousselin de Gruse. Look at another example which gives a beautiful description of the physical beauty of Faniry, creating an atmosphere of sensuousness giving the sense of gazing:

‘At seventeen she was ravishing. In the Malagasy sunlight her skin was golden. Her black, waist-length hair, which hung straight beside her cheeks, framed large, fathomless eyes.’

Other examples of sensuous imagery follow:

“bulbous, winey nose “ and “little white eyes” – sense of eye

“enjoy a decent red wine” – sense of taste

“the fumes from the pressed wine” – sense of smell

“flung her arms around his neck” – sense of touch

These phrases remind us of the sensuousness of John Keats.

Grammatical Categories

The diction of this short story is quite simple and so is the case with the syntax. One notices a degree of simplicity in syntax. There are 137 sentences in this short story where minimum sentence length is one word only. For example Bags! The longest sentence consists of 38 words i.e. Faniry had no family, but Pierre’s parents came out from France for the wedding, even though they did not strictly approve of it, and for three years the young couple lived very happily on the island of Madagascar. Such long sentences are very rare in the story. Average sentence is only 10.91 words long. The average sentence length is significantly short due to the fact that this short story is specially written for the teaching purpose. Most of the corpus by Josef Essberger is written keeping in mind the classroom setting.

The major types of tenses used in this story are the simple past and simple present. The simple present tense has been used predominantly in the conversation among the guests and the host while in the story of the life of Pierre and Faniry; we find that the simple past is predominant. The present tense provides a setting which includes the present movement and with the present tense one looks both forward and backward from within the present period. It is in this sense that the past tense has been used in the story within the story. It has also been noticed that most of the sentences are in active voice. The predominance of the active voice in the main story indicates that the agent (story teller) is very important.

Majority of the sentences found in the text is simple. The overall simplicity is apparent. It is also interesting to note that most of the complex sentences have only one subordinate clause. Sentences with two or more subordinate clauses are exceptions. Most of the simple sentences are in the form of SVA, SVO, ASVO, and SVOA (where S= Subject, V=Verb, O=Object and A = Adverbial). For example

SVA

Faniry followed two weeks later.

SVO

Charles Jousselin de Gruse and his wife exchanged glances.

ASVO

Within two weeks, he had fallen for a local girl called Faniry or ‘Desire’ in Malagasy.

SVOA

The other guests looked around uneasily at each other.

The above structures are predominant in the story probably due to the fact that both the transitive and intransitive verbs along with the adverbials are used to present the information to the reader.

As mentioned earlier, most of the complex sentences found in the story have one subordinate clause and the subordinate clause is usually ‘that’. For example

This evening’s guests were all European and all equally convinced that immigration was at the root of Europe’s problems.

To make the sentences complex, Essberger, in this story, has used coordination also generally signaled by the conjunction ’and’, ‘or’ or ‘but’. For example

De Gruse leaned forwards, took another sip of wine, and dabbed his lips with the corner of his napkin. This is the story he told them.

In this short story, there are many sentences which, in the strict sense of grammatical rules, are not complete at all: they have no verb and are simply noun phrases preceded by preposition. For example

Of the maids.

Of the secretary.

And with the white woman.

Of course, they can not be called sentences and have no meaning in isolation but if we look at them in the context of the story, we find that the author has used such sentences to retain the original flavor of the discourse.

To retain the flavor of spoken discourse, Essberger, especially in dialogic forms, has used elliptical sentences. In literature, ellipsis in not merely a grammatical means to make the work compact but it is a stylistic device to express the meaning or message of the work. For example

Personally, before I uncork a bottle I like to know what’s in it.”

“But how?

Such elliptical sentences have the same expressive effect as a whole.

As far as noun phrases are concerned, one notices that in the story very simple type of noun phrases have been used by the author. For example

D     Adj.         N.H.

A. A     likeable   man

D     Adv.       Adj.               N.H.

B. A    truly     full-bodied    Bordeaux

D             N.H.

C. The      grape-pickers

Coming to the adverbials, we find that the author has made frequent use of time and place adverbials due to the fact that the story within the story is presented in the simple past to indicate activities or states in the past.

Figures of Speech

Phonological Schemes

Essberger, in this short story, leaves impression on us by creating different sensory qualities. In the story within the story when Faniry came to the winery and charged Pierre with new accusations, see what an alliterative effect has been created by the author:

And with white women. But the women in France, the white women, they were the tarts, and he was welcome to them.

Here the repetition of the consonants /w/ and // certainly create auditory imagery evoked by words which are intrinsically alliterative: “white”, “women”, “welcome” start with same consonant /w/: “the” and “them” alike with the sound / /. More interesting to observe is the coupling of “white” and “women”. Another notable example occurs when the screw of the press caught the hair of Faniry and dragged her in. She is crying for help:

She screamed, struggling to free herself. The screw bit slowly into her shoulder and she screamed again.

The characteristic of this posture of Faniry, to a certain degree, derives from the four successive occurrences of the beginning sound / s / in “screamed”, “struggling”, and “screw”, “slowly”. These juxtaposed words create an impression of the pitiable condition of Faniry. Other examples of alliteration and assonance, indeed, exist in fairly large numbers in the remaining parts of the story. And occasionally, consonant and vowel repetitions are employed in a way which lends force to semantic connections.

Similes and Metaphors

Another distinctive feature of Essberger’s writing style, as is revealed by a scrutiny of The Winepress, is her generous use of figurative language, metaphors and similes in particular. The metaphorical language used for the physical description of Faniry is noteworthy:

In the Malagasy sunlight her skin was golden. Her black, waist-length hair, which hung straight beside her cheeks, framed large, fathomless eyes.

In the above example two things of distinctly different categories are compared—the shining skin and the golden colour, the seriousness of the eyes and the fathomless sea. These metaphors are justifiable because of their defining similarities. Such types of metaphors are very common, especially for the description of beauty of the heroine of a fiction.

Another thing that we notice is the onomatopoeic effect. For example

“Darling,” she sighed, “what shall we do?”,

“She screamed”,

Context and Cohesion

It has been found, with the help of analysis that cohesive ties in The Winepress are established mostly through reference and lexical cohesion and partly through conjunction, ellipsis and substitution. On the basis of analysis, it can be presumed that Essberger, to maintain cohesion and coherence in this story, has used different types of referential items in abundance. The author has used text references (words referring to surrounding text, like ‘he’, she’ and  ‘it’), situation references (words referring to the real world such as ‘I’ and  ‘we’), personals like ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’, ‘we’ and ‘they’ along with their object forms like ‘me’ and ‘him’ etc. and their possessive forms like ‘my’ and ‘you’ etc., demonstratives like ‘this’, ‘that’ etc, and comparatives.

A number of words are found that creates lexical cohesion making identical references, for example, ‘gusts’, ‘wine’, ‘Bordeaux’, ‘wife’, ‘red’, ‘wine yard’, ‘drunk’, ‘jealous’, ‘knife’, ‘screamed’ and so on are repeated referring back to the same lexical item. Besides repeating the identical words, synonyms and hyponyms, there are other relationships also between words that can be used as cohesive devices. The words that collocate with other words in any way, also contribute to the texture of the novel. Essberger has employed such words very effectively..

Generally in a fiction, the events described in one sentence often follow the events described in the previous sentence. Sometimes this connection is shown by conjunctive elements and sometimes readers have to mark out the connectivity. The author, in this short story, has employed both the techniques to make the style of the story more effective.

The movement of discourse in the story is smooth because there is a great deal of anaphoric references and ellipses and the readers get involved. Ellipsis is an important part in the development of the theme. An utterance does not function in isolation. It functions as a part of discourse in actual situation. There is a great deal of information available in the earlier utterances to the speaker/hearer for interpreting an utterance.

The context of telling the story of the tragedy of Pierre and Faniry is quite appropriate as the host, through this story, wants to reveal the misuses of drinking in the context while he is entertaining his guests with the specific wine which Pierre used to make and that specific wine became the cause of the tragedy of his life.

Conclusion

On the basis of analysis we may conclude that Essberger’s writing style, as is revealed by an examination of the most prominent linguistic features in The Winepress, does not have anything unique. Very common types of stylistic features of short story writing have been found. Essberger’s style, especially with reference to The Winepress, is by no means aphoristic like that of Frances Bacon; neither is it similar to that of Dickens’s, which is universally recognized as being pompous, filled with sharp-edged irony, together with criticism so direct and forceful. This is due to the fact that this short story is written especially for teaching vocabulary and grammar. One can claim that his style is sensitive, delicate, poetic, seemingly impersonal yet emotional. In the last it can be said that the analysis of the stylistic features of The Winepress, in relation to the analysis of other literary corpus of Josef Essberger, will certainly bring out some specific features of his writing style.

References

Essberger, Josef ( N.A.). The Winepress . Retrieved from http://www.englishclub.com/reading/story-winepress.htm

Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London, LD: Longman.

Halliday, MAK. (1985). An introduction to functional grammar. London, LD: Edward Arnold Publishers.

Leech, G. Deuchar, M. and Hoogenraad, R., (2006). English grammar for today. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Leech, G. and Short, M. 1981). Style in fiction: A linguistic introduction to English fictional prose foreign language. London, LD: Longman.

Sharma, D.D. & Kumar, Ashok. (Eds.). (2000). Issues in stylistics. Lucknow, LK: Gurukul Publication.

Wright, L., & Hope, J. (1996). Stylistics: A practical coursebook. New York, NY: Routledge.