#73, Research Paper: ‘Selection, Classification, Strategies of Developing and Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary’ by by V. Harindhar Reddy

A) Pre-word

Rich heritage of English vocabulary always makes us to feel it, a thing of wondrous.   Teeming numbers of new words intrigue some of us, a lot. This true love on words acted as a driving force in jotting down this article. Word power is heart and soul of  the language. It has been observed that Word-power has a telling effect on the minds of readers and listeners. English language is of sublime beauty, only because of the words it contain. Hence, The nitty-gritty of this article is to equip authors, readers, teachers, experts, scholars, pedants, pioneers and more importantly learners of language with wide range of techniques of teaching vocabulary. In a nutshell, this research article foregrounds the essence of employing different techniques of teaching vocabulary and the nuances associated with it.

B) Abstract

In the age of advertisement, word-power has become buzzword and teaching vocabulary  has become ‘mantra’. People are ready to burn their midnight oil to acquire word power. Based on general ideas and principles of the concept teaching techniques of vocabulary, this research article aims at satisfying four of its prime targets. Considering the practicality of concept, the topic is dealt in an argumentative manner. Without slightest skepticism, the major goal of this piece of research writing is to intensify the minds of teachers, learners and lovers of the language to use wide range techniques in learning and teaching vocabulary. More than 35 teaching techniques of vocabulary are talked over either explicitly or implicitly.

One the prime concerns of the research article is to hash out different categories of words extensively. The third objective of this article is to hit the nail on the head with lucid strategies to  guide teachers, learners and lovers of English language in practicing, developing and expansion of word-power. Last but not least, it traces out problems in teaching vocabulary and offers its valuable suggestions.

C) Introduction

a) Introduction to Vocabulary

Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. As Steven Stahl (2005) puts it, “Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world.” One of the aims of teaching English in India and other countries is to enable students use it as a library language. In order to have the ability to read with considerable pace, to comprehend and to make notes after reading the material; a learner needs to have a large and extensive vocabulary. A learner may choose and limit his vocabulary from 2000 to 4000 for speaking and writing purposes. Hitherto, when he reads, he needs to recognize many other words. So Robert lado suggested that minimum 7000 words are required for reading purposes.

English is a rich and varied language. The number of words in the Oxford English dictionary runs into 10 lakhs. Growth of English vocabulary always takes an elevator as lot new things are discovered and fresh words are added to the language. Nowadays, New words are sprouting like mushrooms in the rain. Simultaneously, umpteen numbers of loanwords walk into English dictionary a day in and day out. It is wild goose chase to master all the words. Anyway, if we need to select words for speaking and writing, we need to have some criteria for selection of vocabulary.

b) Introduction to Teaching Vocabulary

Teaching vocabulary is not everybody’s cup of tea. Albeit, it is not a walk on the cake, it is need of the hour as it is of paramount importance. It tool in the hands of teacher and depends on his art. Students need to see words in the context to know how they are used. Accordingly, perhaps, the best way of introducing new words for the benefit of learners is reading the text. A basic reason for reading texts in the class is to give learners new language input. Whenever, we ask learners to read or listen, we want them to comprehend how words are used in the text. That is why once they finish reading the text, we apparently ask them to do exercises such as matching the words from the text with their definition and so on.

English language is contagious as it has spread its wings in every nook and corner. It has spread all across the globe in such a way that using English has become indispensable. Nowadays, It has become global medium of education and infotainment. As consequence of it, apart from studying English for academic purposes, it has to be read for information, entertainment, technological and other miscellaneous purposes. Henceforward, It has to be handled with kids gloves while grading and selecting English for specific purposes (ESP). Subsequently, when fresh words are introduced, we should handle them deftly and cautiously. It is a walk tightrope. So, While handling new words, it is high time to know, follow and use various teaching techniques in accordance with different contexts. Henceforth, ‘teaching techniques of vocabulary’ is of paramount significance.

Hypothesis

No two words in different languages have the same areas of meaning. The words in two languages may have the same meaning in one situation but differ in other contexts. There can never be one-to-one correspondence between the words of one language and those of another. This is one of the curious characteristic features of words. This makes each language, very special. Umpteen numbers of loanwords like Joga-Bonita, Tiki-taka, Juggernaut, sayonara, salaam, blitzkrieg, harakiri, ombudsman, golem, schmoo, meshuggener, mandarin, mugger, etc., walked into English language. Englis is embellished with loanwords. First of all, ”language is random of thoughts” and added fuel to fire, the existing rules failed to control the growth of the language which is natural phenomenon. Hence, this unique feature makes our task of learning English words difficult and enticing as well.

Out of three, vocabulary is one of the core component of language learning and acquisition, the others being structure and grammar. It is not a drop in the bucket but it is blood and oxygen in communicating our ideas. It is not a child’s play to prepare a research paper on “teaching techniques of vocabulary”, heretofore,  this article is intended to vindicate wide range of techniques based on certain facts and observations on teaching vocabulary. There are no fixed methods of practicing vocabulary yet this article purports to provide a tentative insight into the world of teaching vocabulary.

This article puts its best foot forward while dealing with classification of vocabulary. The aftermath of initial discussion on selection and gradation vocabulary, It singles out the primary problematic area, i.e., there is either no practice or half hearted meek attempt to retain introduced vocabulary in the classrooms. Henceforth, it offers some suggestions to fix the problem. Before you say Jack Robinson, it traces out other hazards in teaching vocabulary and proffers suggestions. However, it further focuses on strategies to develop mental lexicon, various ways of retention and practicing of the vocabulary, vocabulary games and using dictionaries are dissertated. Anyway, the prime concern of this article is equip teachers, learners, readers with modern and antiquated techniques of teaching vocabulary.

D) Requirement and Purpose of Teaching-Learning Vocabulary

For effective communication, it is recognized that learning vocabulary is as important as learning the structure of a language or grammar. It is cog in the wheel and a kingpin. Vocabulary implies the stock of words used in a language. H. Dippie stated “words are like bottles and contain ideas just as bottles contain medicines. The thing that is important for us in words is the ideas that they embody and not their sounds or shapes when written or printed. They exist for what they contain”.

The basic unit of a language is a sentence albeit it is also composed of certain words.  “Words in English language change their meanings like chameleons change their colors on a tree”, says an anonymous writer echoing the opinion of Dr. Johnson, the lexicographer who compiled first dictionary in English. It may be noted that learning of words in isolation does not lead to language learning. Besides, idiomatic use of words makes it necessary that the words of a language are learnt in combination with other words.

E) Article at Glance

I.   Classification of Vocabulary

II.  Compartmentalization of Vocabulary

III. Selection of Vocabulary

IV. Quantification of Vocabulary

V.  Identification of Main Problematic Area

VI. Point of Discussion

VII. Classroom Techniques of Teaching or Presenting of Vocabulary

VIII. Some Other Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary

IX.  Strategies to Develop Vocabulary

X.  VOCABULARY EXPANSION

XI.  Various Ways of Retention of the Vocabulary

XII. Different Ways to Practice Vocabulary

XIII. Vocabulary Games

XIV. Using Dictionaries

I. Classification of Vocabulary

Based on their functions in a sentence, Words are sorted out into 4 groups. They are: 1) Functional words, 2) substitute words, 3) distributive words and 4) content words.

1) Functional words

These words form the skeleton of the language. They have no meaning of their own. Nevertheless, they are primarily used for expressing relationship between words and grammatical patterns. These are the words which help in connecting the content words. Hence, these words are to be taught in the early stages of learning. They are also called functional words. Following are the word categories which are included in function words.

i) Prepositions: A preposition shows a relationship between noun or noun substitute and some other words in a sentence. Ex: with, at, by, to, in, for, from, of, in, betwixt, amidst, underneath, circa, subsequent to, pursuant to, in lieu of, on behalf of, be-hither, anent, vis-a vis, etc.

ii) Auxiliaries: Do forms, be forms, have forms, can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, need, dare are all auxiliaries.

iii) Conjunctions: Which, for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so, nevertheless, unless, that, if, but, and, when, since, whether, therefore, unless, until, albeit, whereas, while, whilst, etc.,

iv) Articles: English has two articles: the and a/an. ‘The’ is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns.

v) Demonstrative Adjectives: This, these, those, that, etc.

vi) Interrogative Particles: How, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why, however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever, etc.

vii) Degree words: More, most, than, one of the, best, etc.

Viii) Miscellaneous: There, it, ever etc.

2) Substitute words

These are the words that serve as substitutes for other words. For example:

1) Sheetal works diligently as you do.

2)  She went to Ethiopia and he did too.

Here the words do and did stand for other words. Henceforth they are called substitute words. Some more examples for substitute words are given below.

i) Personal pronouns: I, me, our, us, you, your, he, his, him, she, her, they, their, them, we, etc.

ii) Indefinite substitutes: everybody, somebody, anybody, someone, everyone, anyone, everything, anything, etc.

Iii) Negative substitutes: nothing, none, nobody, nowhere, none, etc.

iv) Words denoting number of quantity: all, several, much, each, some, few, once, twice, one, etc.

v) Flexible substitutes: so, do, as, alike, akin, similar, etc.

3) Distributive words

There are a number of words with affirmation and negative distribution. Let us consider the following examples:

i) He went to the disco and she did too.

ii) Speech is good; better still is silence.

Here the words too and still are the words affirmation distribution. Here are two more examples.

iii) Rita does not like oily food; neither do I.

iv) I have not any pen.

Here the words neither and any are the words of negative distribution. Evidently, these words show the absence or the presence of a negative thing. Several other words such as quite, already, yet, more, some etc. fall under this category.

4) Content words

If functional words are the skeleton of  a passage, content words are the flesh and blood of the language. They form the solid substance of a language. These are the words that stand for things, actions or qualities and are fragmented into 4 types.

1) Concrete words 2) Abstract words 3) Action words and 4) Quality words

i) Concrete words or words for things: These words include common nouns and the nouns formed out of verbs and adjectives. They are:

a) Simple forms: table, chair, pencil, kite, light, camera, etc.

b) Compound forms: chairperson, blackboard, white-house, spokesperson, sports-car, penknife, etc.

ii) Abstract words: a) Words for actions changes as nouns: approval, invention, departure, feeling, etc.

b) Words for qualities changed as nouns: goodness, weakness, strength, length, conduct, width, sincerity, bravery, breadth, etc.

iii) Action words a) Simple forms: run, jump, rowing, type, google, jig, grimace, chuckle, etc.

b) Compound forms: run-over, turn-over, depend upon, cutting across, break apart, tore off, etc.

c) Words for qualities changed as nouns: unveil, endanger, imprison, dethrone, etc.

d) Words for qualities changed as verbs: weaker, harden, soften, enable, endear, etc.

e) Adverbial words: fast, slow, quick, fleetingly, etc.

iv) Quality words:

These words describe the quality. They include simple adjectives and adjectives formed out of verbs and nouns.

a) Simple form: Short, tall, good, bad, happy, nice, rotten, sour, colossal, mammoth, etc.

b) Words for things changed into adjectives: boyish, childlike, girlish, accidental, tom-foolish, etc.

c) Words for actions changed into qualities: cheerful, smiling, written, learned, etc.

II. Compartmentalization or Kinds of Vocabulary

When bitten by the bug of vocabulary, everybody becomes vocabulary buff. It is observed that learning vocabulary is as important as learning any other core component of the language. All the words in English can be tri-furcated (branched) into three categories. They are 1) Active vocabulary, 2) Passive vocabulary and 3) Adhoc vocabulary.

1) Active or Working Vocabulary

The active vocabulary is which we know very well and use actively in our daily communication. It is the words that the learner knows intimately and can use correctly and effectively in speech and writing. So they are also known as productive or working vocabulary.

2) Passive or Recognition Vocabulary

Words which are likely to be encountered a great deal, in speech or writing or reading, and therefore, the student should be able to recognize, though s/he may never use them in his/her own use, speech or writing or reading. It is also known as recognition or receptive vocabulary. We require this vocabulary while listening to others and reading books.

3) Ad-hoc vocabulary

There is a third category of vocabulary which is called ‘Ad-hoc’ vocabulary or  ‘stranger words’. They comprise the vast number of words that he neither knows nor needs in his every day speech and writing. The words may be important for the given piece of text but these are unlikely to have any utility out side the text.

We can categorize the words as our friends ( Active vocabulary), acquaintances (Passive vocabulary) and strangers (words which we don’t come across so far). Hence, adhoc vocabulary must be guardedly selected and graded and included in the text books for teaching in the schools.

III. Selection of Vocabulary

For an effective teaching of English, a careful selection of vocabulary is cog in the wheel. The teacher has to select good items of vocabulary according to the mental capacity and abilities of the pupils. The words must be selected basing on the following principles.

Principles of selecting vocabulary

1) Word frequency

The meaning of ‘frequency’ is the number of times a particular word or set of words is used in normal reading material. They should be commonly used in speech and writing too. There are many words which occur more frequently than others. These words are said to be popular words. Several attempts have been made to prepare word frequency lists. Faucalt and Mak have prepared a word list and have classified the words as below:

i) Indispensable words: They are about 360 in number. These words have four fold advantages. They give mastery over speaking, reading, writing, listening (and comprehending).                                   ii) Essential words: They are about 498 in all. They are meant for triple mastery, i.e., understanding reading and writing.                                                                                                                                    iii) Useful words: This decides how useful the word is to the learner. It should suit his needs and mental level. They are meant for two fold mastery i.e., reading and understanding.                          iv) Special words: They are for developing mastery over reading.

2.) Structural value

The structural value of the word should do rounds in mind while choosing vocabulary for the students of secondary schools and intermediate colleges. The pupils should learn how to use the structural words properly from the year dot itself. The words like was, shall, with, which, half etc., are structural words and ‘break’, fill, part, speak etc., are the semi-structural words. They are of immense value to students as 95 out of 100 words in the frequency list are structural words.

3) Universality of words

The principle of universality of a word is based on the usefulness of a word anywhere and everywhere, all across the globe. Thus the environment of home, school, society and the places like villages, towns, cities may be expressed in the like words everywhere.

4) Applicability of Words

A word may be used in different ways in different sentences. The teacher should teach those words first which are related to the child’s surroundings and experiences. For ex: in big cities where most pupils know words like hospital, doctor, college, etc., are to be taught first as the child can learn these words easily.

5) Word’s productivity

Morphologically, those words which are productive in nature has to be selected. By adding prefixes and suffixes to the word, new words may be formed as (-invest -investor -investment -investing, dis-investing, investiture, etc.) the grasp of pupils over the language is escalated with the help of productive words.

IV. Quantification or Gradation of Vocabulary

Gradation of vocabulary is a matter of useful consideration. The teacher should grade vocabulary to be taught in such a way that the learners may learn the words in an easy and efficacious way. The following principles should be kept in mind while grading the vocabulary.

1) Simplicity Words which are dewy-eyed and simple in meaning and usage are always to be learnt beforehand than the difficult ones. For ex: the words ‘sad’ and ‘journey’ are simple than ‘lamentable’ and ‘commute’. Naturally, we should grade them in the order of simplicity.

2) Teachability

The words which are easy to teach can be taken up first than the complex or abstract words. For ex: the nouns like curtain, scissors, eraser, ruler, compass, desk, window, etc. and the verbs like jump, chuckle, grin, grimace, giggle, laugh, smile, jot, stoop, shrug, etc., can be easily be demonstrable and teachable than the words like murkier, mundane, ascend, ascetic, etc. Indeed! We should keep the teachability of words in view while grading the vocabulary.

3) Utility

More useful words should be taken up first while the less useful words can be learnt later. For ex: the words like curtain, geometry box, compass, laptop  eraser, etc., are more useful for the beginners than trauma, torment, intrigue, etc. The words of daily use, such as those of daily actions, common objects, parts of body, common adjectives and common relationships like mother, father, brother, sister, cousin, nephew, niece, etc., can be taken up first while the less familiar ones can be studied by the pupils, later.

4) Word’s structural value

Structural words are quintessential for the beginners than the content words. Such words should be carefully graded keeping in view the frequency of use. For ex: the prepositions with, on, in, of, at, for, etc., should be taken earlier than betwixt, amidst, amok, etc. The same criteria should be kept in mind while grading structural verbs, personal pronouns and other similar words.

5) Grading of Words

The words selected should be graded in the order of complexity in oncoming and pronunciation.

V. Identification of Main Problematic Area – Pragmatism takes back seat in the classrooms

a) Neglected Area

This is the neglected area of vocabulary presentation. While the new words are presented using various techniques, the practice stage is totally neglected. In order to enable the learners to make these words an active part of their vocabulary, they should be given a lot of practice in the use of these fresh words.

b) Offering necessary suggestions

1) They may be asked to frame sentences of their own.

2) When a prose lesson is presented, the fresh words are usually presented. nonetheless, the need of the hour is enough practice has to given in speaking, reading and writing of the new structure.

3) Practice of new words should be interwoven with pattern practice, instead of dealing with them as separate components.

4) At the application stage the same words may be used for oral and written composition. The novel words presented must be practiced, not only orally but also in writing.

5) They may be asked to write out the spellings of the new words, read it with accurate pronunciation, and then used in the sentences.

6) Some exercises which gives the command over the new words has to be devised and administered to the learners.

VI. Point of Discussion – Some other hazards in teaching vocabulary and offering suggestions.

a) Some loopholes and haphazards in “teaching vocabulary”

Teaching fresh words is a herculean task. It is titanic struggle. As it is uphill task, it requires that a teacher to plan the presentations of the new words. It’s alarming to note that albeit an average Indian teacher spends considerable time in teaching novel words, the learners doesn’t have a minimum vocabulary at his disposal at the college level. This is mainly because there is no planning involved in the teaching of new words. Secondly, wrong techniques are used in teaching fresh words. They give meanings directly in the mother tongue without attempting to do it in any other way. Using the mother-tongue is not condemned, but it should be an exception and lender of last resort. Use of the mother-tongue frequently in the class deprives the child as he mayn’t get enough exposure of English. Thence, it is a futile exercise.

b) Offering necessary suggestions to overcome the problems

1) Thence, teachers should be trained to use a number of techniques to present the new words.

2) It is suggested that teachers first list out all the fresh words in a given passage and categorize them into active, passive and adhoc vocabulary.

3) The various ways of presenting fresh words has to be planned. Suitable pictures, objects, or the verbal contexts are to be planned in advance. This not only saves time but makes room for more practice of the words taught. New words can be taught by the following ways.

VII) Classroom Techniques of Teaching or Presenting of Vocabulary

Let me call a spade a spade, In teaching English, teaching vocabulary has become thousand pound gorilla in the room. If we don’t handle it with kids gloves, a sword of Damocles always waits in the corner, in the name of word-power which a pose tantalizing problems to pupils. Henceforth, A number of methods are used while teaching fresh words to the learners. Some of them are discussed below:

1) Using objects – This can be done by pasting labels on the objects. Classroom objects can also be used. Pictures from magazines should be used. Blackboard sketches are also useful. Slides are also excellent aids of teaching vocabulary. These are of handy help to beginners of the language.

1) Labels: pasting labels on objects
2) Magazine pictures: pictures that illustrate words in dialogue; blackboard, sketches, etc.

3) Articles: objects that can be shown in the class

4) Class-room objects: calendar, projector, laptop, clock etc.

2) Using gestures and symbols – Many words can be presented by gestures and symbols. For instance, words like hop, move, flip, truncate, throw, beneath, etc., can be presented by acting them out. This technique is very effective in the early stages of learning.
i) Descriptive adjectives: chubby, plump, stout, agile, versatile, etc.

ii) Prepositions of place: on, onto, in, into, between, underneath, up, upon, etc.
iii) Action verbs: go, jig, dance, sing, jump, throw, hop, etc.

3) Performing actions

There are some words whose actions can be performed. For example: jigging, jotting, jingling, writing, jumping, reading, sipping, etc. This type of words should be taught by actions. Thus class will buzz with activity and students love to learn these words. This is very adjuvant  to beginners.

4) Showing models

Some times the actual objects may not be possible to bring into the classroom. In that case, their models can be shown to the learners and thus words can be taught. We can’t bring the rocket, ship, train, or spacecraft into the class. Instead, we can show the models of them and teach.

5) Using charts and pictures

A chart or a picture can be prepared for certain words – may be nouns or action words. Some situations can also be created with the help of charts and pictures. In this way sentence or a group of words can be made clear to the learners of the language.

6) Using Black-board

Black-board is the best type of aid for the purpose of teaching vocabulary. If the teacher is expert in drawing then the figures or diagrams may be drawn on it. In this way some of the words can be taught to the students.

7) By associations

The new words may be associated with the old ones, which the child has already learnt. It can be done by asking antonyms, synonyms, past tense, gender, etc. For example, while teaching the word “invincible”, the teacher may ask what the opposite of beatable is. Here, it is presumed that the student already knew the word beatable.

8)  Multiple word contexts – Multiple exposures in multiple contexts One principle of effective vocabulary learning is to provide multiple exposures to a word’s meaning. There is great improvement in vocabulary when students encounter vocabulary words often (National Reading Panel, 2000). According to Stahl (2005), learners probably have to see a word more than once to place it firmly in their long-term memory. When learners can see words used in a diversity of contexts, then it will enhance their ability to retain the words and comprehend them in different reading experiences. So, seeing the word in different and multiple contexts is important.

9) Using known vocabulary

The fresh words can be taught through their synonyms and antonyms. The same ideas are expressed by two or more different words or phrases and one of these may be familiar to the learner.

a) Synonyms: ‘SAD’: deplorable, distressing, lamentable, pitiful, gloomy sorrowful, doleful, unhappy, bittersweet, mournful, lugubrious, melancholic, pensive, wistful, tragic, etc.

b) Antonyms: ‘THOUGHTFUL’: heedful, attentive, contemplative, meditative, ruminative, pondering, bemused, pensive, considerate, profound, preoccupied, bemused, brooding, etc.                                        c) Synonyms and antonyms in sentence-contexts:

i)Ravana was cruel and barbarous king.                                                                                                              ii) Asoka was a generous and noble king.

10) Using word categories

Names of categories can be taught verbally if students know some names of items that belong to a particular category:

i) Stationary – pen holder, paper shredder, pencil, glue-stick, eraser, etc.

ii) Cosmetics – cream, oil, powder, etc.

iii) Utensils – spoon, cup, saucer, mug, kettle, etc.

iv) Furniture – table, chair, cot, sofa, etc. A number related words can be introduced under a particular category:

→ A farm: farm, farmer, plough, sickle, harvest, nest, sow, reap, reaping hook, bullocks,….         → Meals (food): breakfast, lunch, supper, dessert, peach, cream, brunch, sausage, salad,….

11) Definition and paraphrase Teaching definition, meaning and usage of freshly introduced word is always of great use.                 For Instance: 1) COTERMINUOUS: (adj.) being of equal scope or duration.                                   2) HULLICINATION: (noun) something which you imagine you can see or hear, but which is not really there, or the experience of this.

12) Using Mother-tongue (MT)

As lender of last resort, when all sorts of devices fail for teaching a particular word, especially an abstract word, it is rather advisable that the teacher should tell the meaning of the word in mother tongue (MT). Direct use of mother tongue i.e., to give equivalents in MT, ex: for peace, polite, noble, etc. We have mentioned already that the prime consideration for the teacher must be to provide as much practice in the use of the target language as possible. A lot of time is wasted in avoiding MT.  At times, mother tongue is Hobson’s choice and can’t be fended off in learning ESL. Then these words can be assimilated easily and will be available for active use.

13) Creating verbal situations Sometimes, it so happens that for some words, visual symbols are not possible. In that case verbal situations have to be created. For ex: the teacher wants to teach the word ‘forget’. The teacher may try to speak or tell the names of the students saying – “Your name is Harry. Your name is Rita and your name is … I am unable to recollect your name. I forgot. I always forget so many things”. When this type verbal situation is set before the students they will be able to understand that word.         For instance: Expensive: A pair of grey trousers costs 500 rupees. A pair of faded blue jeans costs 750 rupees. A pair of grey trousers is cheap but a pair of faded jeans is expensive.

14) Finding meanings from the context or by inference Definition → This is a technique for determining the meanings of unknown words. This is to guess the meanings from context. The most common way of finding meanings from the context is by inference.

Example → It was an important announcement for all cricket players. They have to ponder over it. They were left to ponder on the implications of the announcement.

These sentences actually tell the meaning of the word ‘ponder’. The first sentence gives us some idea about the word ponder where as the second enables us to comprehend the meaning of this word. It is obvious that to ponder is to think. The meanings of some new words are explained themselves obviously when we are reading rapidly.

15) Contextual analysis

Contextual analysis involves inferring the meaning of an unfamiliar word by scrutinizing the text surrounding it. Instruction in contextual analysis generally involves teaching students to employ both generic and specific types of context clues.

16) Experience/familiarity Take the word guitar. Let us say that the students have never heard this word before. Look at these sentences.                                                                                                                                                                             1) He used to be one of the best clarinet players in the town.                                                                2) He never liked to play the guitar after he started playing the clarinet.                               From the first sentence, we can guess the meaning of clarinet can be a game or a music instrument. But the second sentence shows the meaning of clarinet to be only a musical instrument, provided the students know the word guitar (it is presumed that they know about guitar). A learner who learns how to determine the meaning of the unknown word by the means of the contextual clues whenever the situation permits it can minimize his/her dependence on the dictionary.

VIII) Some Other Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary We have listed some techniques that can be used to teach vocabulary. Nevertheless, there are wide range of techniques deployed in teaching word-power. Here are some other important techniques. But to employ these techniques, we need to categorize the words. They are,

17) Tri-furcation of vocabulary We have already mentioned that vocabulary items to be taught could fall into three categories a) ad-hoc, b) Passive and c) active vocabulary. The words which students are required to use actively in there expression form the active vocabulary. These are already explicated licitly.

18) Contextual orientation

A single word may have numerous meanings. The word ‘make’, for example, has 97 different meanings (Mackey) and a gloss of that word is the exact meaning intended in that particular context. In presenting the vocabulary items, context is important. Hence words should not be taught in isolation. Words get their full meaning from the context, so sound techniques are needed for “contextual orientation”.

19) Productive Purposes

Before the actual teaching of words, the teacher has to decide upon the words for the productive purpose of the words; those meant for active, mere recognition and ad-hoc words. The selection of the classroom techniques depends upon the relative importance of the different categories of words.

20) Different Categories of words

A further distinction has to be made between concrete nouns and such as book, table, cow, etc., and abstract nouns such as honesty, poverty, resourcefulness, etc. The techniques have to be altered suitably and deftly to teach these different categories of words. The relative difficulty of the words selected can only be studied in these different categories. Between verbs and nouns, the verbs are usually more difficult than nouns; abstract nouns are more difficult than concrete nouns.

21) The teaching of pronunciation, meaning and spelling of words

In presenting the new words teachers should take care to give students the sound, the sense and the shape of words; the teaching of pronunciation, meaning and spelling of words. Novel words once presented should be further established by means of several repetitions which are spaced, controlled and meaningful. This should be done especially in the earlier stages and for the words for productive purposes.

22) The picture reading method

We may start the class by showing or drawing pictures or miming the actions. The words are carefully modeled and the teacher may well conduct a rapid cue-response drill where she points to a picture or mimes the action and then nominate a student to choose the appropriate words of verbs like ascend, jump, shrug, grimace, jig, etc.

23) We need to focus on functional aspect of language

We need to focus on functional aspect of language which contracts on lexical phrases or chunks. We can get to elements of phrases, the first element would be invitation phrase– I would like to…. and students should say few sentences using the same structure. We can then get the students to repeat the different sentences both in chorus or individually. When we ask the students to use the sentence and phrases correctly, we will have to pay special attention to the intonation they use.

24) Morphemic analysis

Morphemic analysis is the process of deriving a word’s meaning by analyzing its meaningful parts, or morphemes. Such word parts include root words, prefixes, and suffixes. We have to provide the students with a list of appropriate words so that they can add prefixes and suffixes then to use the words accordingly.

Ex: prefixes Ex: suffixes

Un-civilized                                                                                      Appoint-ment Dis-belief                                                                                                Success-ful

Im-polite                                                                                              Profit-able

Ill-logical                                                                                           Marvel-ous

In-visible                                                                                           Transfer-able

IX. Strategies to Develop Vocabulary

In order to make the learners converse in English fluently, there is a need of amplifying the vocabulary of the students. The students learn only a limited vocabulary which may not be sufficient to express freely. There is no rose without thorns. It is not nine days wonder. Nothing can be taught within two shakes of a lamb’s tail. So, the teacher should deploy tactical and tacit ways and means to expand the vocabulary of the student. Some of the techniques to improve the vocabulary of the students are given below.

25) Reading comprehension

Of the many compelling reasons for providing students with instruction to build vocabulary is to comprehend any text they read. Nothing contributes more vocabulary knowledge than the reading comprehension. Indeed, one of the most enduring findings in reading research is the extent to which students’ vocabulary knowledge relates to their reading comprehension (e.g., Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Baumann, Kame‘enui, & Ash, 2003; Becker, 1977; Davis, 1942; Whipple, 1925).

26) Incidental vocabulary learning The scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that most vocabulary is acquired incidentally through indirect exposure to words. Students can acquire vocabulary incidentally by engaging in rich oral-language experiences at home and school; listening to books read aloud to them, and reading widely on their own. Reading volume is very important in terms of long-term vocabulary development (Cunningham and Stanovich, 1998). Kamil and Hiebert (2005). The  reason is that extensive reading gives students repeated or multiple exposures to words in rich contexts.

27) Fostering word consciousness

A more general way to help students develop vocabulary is by fostering word consciousness, and inculcating interest in words. Word awareness is not an isolated component of vocabulary instruction; it needs to be taken into account each and every day (Scott and Nagy, 2004). It can be developed at all times and in several ways. According to Graves (2000), “If we can get students interested in playing with words and language, then we are at least halfway to the goal of creating the sort of word-conscious students who will make words a lifetime interest.”

28) Suggesting some headings

The teacher may suggest some headings like class room, school, university, college, airport, coffee shop, book stall etc. The students may be asked to think of the words related to the topic and tell those words. For example, ‘school’– teacher, head master, student, class monitor, peon, school bell, library etc.

29) Through word families

Through word families, related words may be collected together. For example, invest investment, disinvestment, investing, investor, investiture, etc.

30) Some special bulletin board

Some special bulletin board/black board may be used for this purpose. Daily, one or two new words or expressions may be written on it. The students may be asked to consult it regularly and learn the word or expressions jotted down on it.

31) Games

Some games may be introduced for the expansion of vocabulary. For ex: the class may be dissevered into two groups. One student from one group speaks a word. Then the student of the second group speaks the word starting with the last letter of the word spoken by the first group. This game is called ladder game.

A                                                          B

Excite Enterpriser

Rollicking Golem

Multitude                                                Endurance

Elementary Yummy

Yellow Welled

Dreadful Lucid

32) Writing some letter on the blackboard

The teacher writes some letter on the black board: For ex: ‘L’, now the students will be asked to speak or write the word starting with that letter. This will help in the expansion of vocabulary. Lilliputian, lull, lullaby, lambaste, lampoon, lackluster, lest, etc.

33) The teacher may write some word on the black board

The teacher may write some word on the black board: For instance: picture. Now the students can be asked to form words with the letters given in the above said word. The students will form the words with the letters ‘PICTURE’. Some of the words thus formed may be – pit, cut, cure pure, true, tip, tire, ire, up, it, rip, cute, ice, etc.

34) Through homophones

The words which have almost the same pronunciation but have different spellings and different meanings may be put in different categories. For example – write, right, rite, flap, flop, flower, flour, floor, boar, bore, ride, rode, etc.

35) Pre-reading vocabulary lists

Teachers can have students create pre-reading vocabulary lists when new material is introduced in the classroom or during prescribed reading times during class.

36) Journaling vocabulary words

Having students put a word a day in their journals is great, but having them use the word in active writing assignments is even better for word usage and retention.

37) By word collocations

Word collocations are togetherness of words. Some words are like friends and they always come after one another. Phrasal verbs and Idioms have fixed order of words. These are all collocations. It is of predominant importance to teach word collocations. Ex: perter out, eat crow, etc.

X. VOCABULARY EXPANSION

There are four ways in which vocabulary is built in relation to reading. They are 1) wide reading, 2) direct instruction, 3) incident instruction and 4) Instant vocabulary. These are significant instruction ways in developing vocabulary.

Let us not beat around bush, wide reading is buttressed as the best single way to escalate one’s vocabulary. Direct vocabulary instruction means selecting the appropriate words to be taught and the teaching the association of meaning by various techniques – the direct approach is one in which list of words and sentences containing words and studied deliberately for the development of word power. Incidental instruction to build meaning vocabulary is often a combination of wide reading and direct instruction. Word power can be augmented when we master the meaning and use of roots and pre-fixation and suffixation of roots. This enables us to comprehend more words and a increases our vocabulary. This is very clearly demonstrated in the celebrated book “Instant Vocabulary” authored by Ida Ihrlich.

Reading vocabulary becomes permanent vocabulary only if it is transferred to writing, speaking and thinking vocabularies. Students’ attention can be drawn so that they notice the author’s choice of words for accuracy of meaning and also to power of words in appealing to various senses.

J. C. Richards mentions the following assumptions concerning the nature of lexical competence:

1)      The native speaker of a language continues to expand his vocabulary in adulthood, whereas there is comparatively little development of syntax.

2)      Knowing a word means knowing a degree of probability of encountering that word in the speech or print.

3)      Knowing a word implies knowing the limitations imposed on the use of the word according to the variations of function and situation.

4)      Knowing a word entails the knowledge of underlying form of word and the derivations that can be made from it.

5)      Knowing a word means knowing many of the different meanings associated with the word.

XI. Various Ways of Retention of the Vocabulary The various techniques of the teaching vocabulary are important. Nevertheless, the techniques which improve a student’s retention of the vocabulary items are equally important. The association of the words meaning is a predominant factor in vocabulary learning. When we learn our own languages, we associate words and sentences with thoughts, ideas, actions, and events. Hence a useful strategy for vocabulary teaching is to present the words in the semantically organized groups, ex: bank, stream, rill, ravine, river, beech, sea, shore, ponds, pools, ocean, island, bridge … The word in each group would support each other, the familiar words helping the students to construe the meaning of unfamiliar.

Hence this kind of presentation of words, i.e., semantic organization of words presented at a time helps the learner 1) to understand words easily, 2) to remember and to recall them at a later stage and 3) to appreciate the association between the words. Example → Mathematical wizard Ramanujam, in demonstrating the theories of Algebra, did not imagine a computerized society. Faraday did not expect our electrical technology. Newton certainly did not dream of television set. The point is that one cannot foresee the consequences of scientific research in detail.                                                                                                                                On going through the passage the learner learns that in certain contexts foresee can replace imagine, expect and dream.

XII. Different Ways to Practice Vocabulary Practice is of uttermost importance in the learning of every language item. Practicing is kingpin of any activity. Pupils should get down to the brass tacks and prepare their own dictionaries to improve their word-power. They should note down the new words and their meanings, synonyms and antonyms which they have learnt from different sources. While preparing such lists, they should see the contexts in which they have learnt the words. The vocabulary learnt should be integrated with structures.

They should be encouraged to listen to English news, Newspapers, Magazines, etc, and note down the fresh words and expressions they come across while doing so. They can be encouraged to do word puzzles and other language games to increase horizons of their vocabulary. Whenever a fresh word has to be introduced it should be presented dramatically and as concretely as possible. A word is a live thing, as it were, and not a museum specimen, dead and set in a fixed pose-so, let it be alive to help in producing more and more ideas thorough oral and written expressions.

XIII) Vocabulary Games

It is researched that the language games and will not only improve vocabulary of students but also their thought process. These sorts of games also stimulate brain of students. There are many games which are appropriate for use with correction of vocabulary terms. These games should be entertaining and information oriented at the same time. These include (1) call my bluff, 2) charades, 3) linked words, etc.

1) Game – Call my bluff

→ In the following game, students have to explain the meaning of a word or phrase to one of their team members so that he or she can guess what the word is. In the following game, students have to explain the meaning of a word or phrase to one of their team members so that he or she can guess what the word is.

→ Students are branched into small teams. In each team one member sits with their back to the board.

→ The teacher now jots down a word or phrase on the board. All other team members have to explain what it means (without saying the word or phrase itself) to the team member who has his back to the board. If the student guesses the word gets a point for their team.

2) Game – Charades

→ Students are forked into small teams or groups consisting of 5 to 10.  Each team should pick anything which gives scope to act like a play, drama, lesson, movie, novel, etc.

→ Then the players in each team have to act out their role in the play or movies as per their selection. Which ever team acts well will get the prize.

3) Game – Linked-words

→ Teacher asks the students to write chained words with in stipulated time.

→ Suppose, teacher may give limited time of 15 minutes and students should jot down chained words like teacher, student, boy, girl, classroom, blackboard, drawing, picture, home, play, games, snacks, etc.

→ Whomsoever writes maximum words in the alloted time wins the game.

It has been observed that these kinds of games helps in inculcating team spirit and involves active participation of students. These are a very few games but there plenty of games to explore.

XIV. Using Dictionaries

Dictionary use teaches students about multiple word meanings, as well as the importance of choosing the appropriate definition to fit the particular context. He may be in catch 22 situation to pick the correct meaning of the word according to the context. Hence, using dictionaries has to be taught to learners as they many come across plenty of meanings for same word whenever he looks up-to dictionary. Teachers should also teach phonetic script to students which equips them with better pronunciation when they look into dictionary for meaning he can also update his pronunciation. Here comes the need to teach students how to use dictionaries.

Reference Dictionaries

Reference dictionaries: These kinds of dictionaries are most frequently used by as this a necessary discovery. It needs to be distinguished from productionaries, a comparatively type of dictionary which has recently emerged.

A reference dictionary is complete and holistic in approach.  In it, where a student looks up a word to see the meaning of the word how it is used and the way it is spelt and pronounced. In today’s dictionaries their is a good chance of providing extra information to the uses about such things as

→ pronunciation                                                                                                                                       →  difference between British and American usage                                                                                          → Similar words, for example the difference                                                                                          → frequency of usage of the words                                                                                                         → levels of formality                                                                                                                                    → its usage → abusive, slang, → colloquial, normal etc.

Summary and Conclusions

The research article examines what research tells us about how students acquire vocabulary and about what instruction must be done to help students develop the kind of vocabulary knowledge that will contribute to their reading success. If you think teaching vocabulary is a child’s play, tell it to marines! Let me talk turkey, “life is short but vocabulary is long, and acquiring it takes life time, even in one’s own language”. Upping the ante and pulling up one’s socks is the only way to acquire word deposit. So one should be eagle eyed while imparting vocabulary skills to students. One can encompass strategies that use the different types of vocabulary instruction in creating word context, content, meaning and application that will prove beneficial and powerful to him as the student grows to understand the importance and application of words.

The instructional activities described in this article would be appropriate for promoting vocabulary learning in any classroom. However, success in using the activities depends on following some general guidelines. The changing winds and shifting sands of the history of ELT is obvious. The same goes with teaching vocabulary which is important component of ELT. These include introducing word meanings, presenting words in a variety of contexts, providing multiple opportunities to learn words in active and generative ways, and providing ongoing assessment. Vocabulary acquisition will always be a long haul.  The teacher should essay the role of the guide.

You must use the learned words in your everyday speech. Throw everything else in the towel except practicing. However, using a combination different strategies and techniques according to the situation is the hour of the need. When you practice these techniques, then, teaching-learning vocabulary becomes neither pie in the sky nor a sour grape. That is all for now as Elvis has left the building. Get the show on the road, and make go off while learning vocabulary. Let me leave the ball in your court, whether to kick it or not is your wish. Hold your horses and go out extra mile. I hope you to implore and explore various ways teaching-learning vocabulary. Break a leg!

About Author

Author of this article is working as faculty in English at RGU-IIIT, Basar, A.P., and India. He has been working as English language teacher for a period of 7 years. My heart is blown when ever my I catch a new word or expression. It leaps like rainbow and I bow before the variety and heritage of English language. This tinge in me is instrumental force in jotting down this Research Article.

(Observed, researched, prepared, edited and authored by V. Harindhar Reddy)

References and Resources

1) The Context of Language Teaching (1985) – Cambridge University Press.

2) Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension

3) Vocabulary Development (From Reading Research to Practice, V. 2)

4) Vocabulary Instruction: Research to Practice (Solving Problems in the Teaching of Literacy)

5) Teaching Vocabulary

6) Techniques in Teaching Vocabulary

7) Teaching academic ESL writing: practical techniques in vocabulary and grammar

8) Developing Vocabulary at Home

9) Instant Vocabulary

10) Developing Vocabulary Skills.