#68, Research Article: ‘Traditional and Modern Ways of Word Formation and Principles underlying in It’ by V. Harindhar Reddy

The target of this research article is to meet 3 objectives. One of the important aims of this research article is to provide information about word formation in such a way to create awareness to common man who comes across plenty of new words coined and used extensively in newspapers and on-line daily. However, the central goal and the chief objective of this article is to arouse curiosity and ignite spark in the minds and hearts of learners and speakers of English of all generations whether they are youth or adults. This article also aims to reach all sorts of English users regardless their using it as Mother Tongue (MT) or Second Language (ESL) or Foreign Language (EFL). Last but not least, It is a deliberate attempt made to satisfy the quench and augment the appetite of pedants, scholars, teachers and students in giving idea about old and new ways of word formation with the trivialities associated with it. The principles underlying in word making are also hashed out.

Introduction

”People say world is thoroughly globalized, computerized and industrialized. This is the age of advertisement and multimedia as rationalism and commercialism are obviously seen and felt everywhere. No doubt it is genuine to say all these things but it is doubly true and more than appropriate if we could say world is anglicized completely”, says an anonymous writer. This speaks volumes about the significance of English in modern arena. Then vocabulary is important part and aspect of language and word formation is the root of vocabulary and a branch of etymology.

i) Vocabulary – Importance of a good vocabulary – Why your vocabulary can be the make or break factor in your career and life success because you are judged by the people by the words you use. Word power is double edged sword. If you are good at it, it pays rich dividends otherwise your strategies will be backfired.  Like it or not, every time you speak to someone they are trying to figure out how competent, successful, and smart you are. Research conducted in this area has shown that people are more likely to be judged as competent and smart when they speak with a good vocabulary. One of the most persistent findings in reading research is that the extent of students’ vocabulary knowledge relates strongly to their reading comprehension and overall academic success (see Baumann, Kame‘enui, & Ash, 2003; Becker, 1977; Davis, 1942; Whipple, 1925). Word formation is root for the evolution and development of vocabulary. Henceforward, let us know what word formation is?

ii) Word-formation – The formation of longer, more complex words from shorter, simpler words is not new in English. In the West, the analysis of word form began in classical Greece and passed in due course to Rome. Philosophers including Plato and Aristotle and grammarians such as Dionysius Thrax and Terentius Varro developed the study of the ways in which words were formed as a part of Grammar, founding a long and subtle tradition that was inherited and extended by 19^th century comparative philology. In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word’s meaning. The line between word formation and semantic change is sometimes a bit blurry; what one person views as a new use of an old word, another person might view as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form; see Conversion (linguistics). Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, though sometimes words can form from multi-word phrases; see Compound (linguistics) and Incorporation (linguistics).

Hypothesis Out of three, vocabulary is one of the very important aspect of language learning and acquisition the others being structure and grammar. Though the research on word formation is not cakewalk or coffee table small talk yet this  research article swiftly brings into limelight new, provocative, and sometimes currently untestable ideas, while preserving the free-thinking nature of the earliest earliest articles on word-making. Henceforward, this article  freely articulates most exiting ideas underlying in formation of new words. It provides a vessel for thoughtful speculation and healthy debate stimulates among readers and scholars can freely articulate their most exciting ideas.

The point of discussion is to bring forth traditional and orthodox ways of word formation fleetly and swiftly. Conventionally, methods of word formation are limited. Traditionally language was enriched and embellished with addition of loanwords when the exiting vocabulary failed to express new or creative ideas. Apart from borrowings, some archaic and classical methods were  adopted in forming new words. Out of the antiquated methods, onomatopoeia generalization of meaning, addition of prefixes and suffixes the root words, abbreviation,  syncopation, telescoping, met-analysis, Portmanteau words, Back-formation, unnecessary pluralization, false etymology, folk etymology, new coinages, freak formations were trendy and in existence, in those days.

However, now-a-days, rules are relaxed; ways of word formation are augmented and took the elevator as a result of our using numerous new methods through keeping the antiquated methods. Some of them are contranyms, eponomys, toponyms, reduplicatives, truncation, contraction, novel pluralization, other methods are in vogue. The trend is to form many new words as new technologies are coming into existence with rocketing speed. Creation is at pinnacle as creation of new things has become order of the day. Using new words is everybody’s cup of tea and fastly catching fashionista. New words are voguish an trendy as euphony or sound is given substantial consideration while forming new words. Without any doubt of iota, this article discusses 20 traditional and 35 new methods are either mentioned or hashed out with newfangled ideas.

Purpose and Necessity

Having a great vocabulary is not just about the number of words you know, but how precisely you can comprehend these words and vocabulary isn’t something that you are born with. Anyone can improve their vocabulary at any time with dedication and with right tools investing in your vocabulary is probably the best investment you can make in future. English vocabulary is enormous and grows steadily with technological and cultural assimilations. The vast majority of the new words introduced, and a great percentage of the words used to express new and creative ideas when existing vocabulary seems to be insufficient ever changing world of transition.

Now-a-days, the terms ‘word formation’ does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage.  In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. There are numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages though some may arouse controversies. One of the distinctive properties of human language is creativity, by which we mean the ability of native speakers of a language to produce and understand new forms in their language. Even though creativity is most apparent when it comes to sentence formation, it is also manifest in our lexical knowledge, where new words are added to our mental lexicon regularly. In this article the most comprehensive expositions of word formation processes that speakers of a language use regularly (and unconsciously too) to create new words in their language are presented.

Various Aspects and Significance of the Language

Have you ever thought of late to improve your word power? If haven’t, now it is high time to think about. It is of paramount importance. You cannot wash your hands as good vocabulary is must and should to all of us. John O’ Connor, founder of John O’ Connor Research Foundation proved in multiple scientific studies that “the size and quality of a person’s vocabulary is directly related to the level of success that person is able to achieve in both personal and professional endeavors”. In fact, it is believed that having vocabulary was not only essential to a successful life but was also the single greatest indicator of the potential for success.

The English language has become the international language of the world. In addition to the 400 million people speaking English as a first language, about 800 million use or study English as a second/ foreign language. English is rich and varied with as many as 8 lakhs of words. This list only goes up as umpteen numbers of words are added up each day which entails us the telling effect of the language on the world and people. As English grammar is relatively simple compared to other languages, it is the vast English vocabulary, which poses a real challenge in the quest to master the language (Pyles, T. & Algeo, J. 1982). Word-formation in English operates among hundreds of millions of people, drawing on centuries of complex hybridization and prompting idiosyncrasy in forms and uses. As a result, even the most well-defined categories and patterns identify tendencies rather than absolutes that are thoughtlessly ‘flouted’ by the ignorant and insensitive. Around such focal points as compounding and affixation, with their relative certainties, swarm innumerable and unpredictable fringe formations, of longer or shorter duration, such as lowerarchy, Rice-a-Roni and Grandma Tourette.

Chief Methods or Ways of Word Formation:

1) Imitation or Onomatopoeia:

This is perhaps one of the oldest, if also the crudest, methods of word-making. A number of words in our vocabulary today, especially those which describe some kind of sound are obviously imitative in character. There are plenty of examples of this kind. As a few representative ones we may take bang, pop, buzz, click, whiz, rumble, mumble, hiss, giggle etc. It is generally accepted that the Latin barbarous, from which is derived our own word barbarian, was, in its origins a verbal imitation of the uncouth and unintelligible babbling (as it is sounded to the Roman ears) of foreign tribes. The imitative nature of the words such as these is clearly evident.

The word slither, for instance, has a slippery suggestion about it, while words like awe and awful remind us of the exclamation ooh!, denoting surprise and wonder. Similarly, ‘bl’ suggests inflation, possibly inflation from cheeks when it is being pronounced, e.g., blow, blast, bloated, blister, blob etc. The consonants like p,t,k give the impression of quick and sudden action, e.g., pommel, torrent, kick, clutch etc. Most of the times, ‘fl’ is employed to suggest hurry and bury, e.g., fly, flee fling, flash, flick, flip, flop, flash, flutter, flapping, float, flush, etc.‘wh’ represents something submissive, subdued and quiet, e.g. whisper, whine, whilst, whimper etc. A large number of the words suggesting stability or station, too begin with the consonant combination ‘st’, e.g., stop, stay, station, statue, stick, etc.

However, this process should not be taken for granted and of course, cannot be pursued too far. There are plenty of limitations with many words. All words in ‘st’, do not stand for stability, for example: striking, stitching, style etc. Anyway, that fact that Onomatopoeia in the past has been one of the significant principles underlying word making cannot be denied.

2. Extension of meaning or an older word is given a new significance:

This is a method which has been used so extensively that it cannot be adequately dealt with in one or two paragraphs, merely. A few examples may, however, be given here. Again, we all know what we mean by a pedant – “one who likes to display his learning and is over-particular about trivialities which are of academic interest only”. But to Shakespeare it meant a schoolmaster. Here, then, is an example of what was at one time a very general term, but which has since been given a specialized meaning. Perhaps an even better example is to be found in the  verb to manufacture , which , as most of the people know, means literally’ to make by hand’. But modern usage nearly always employs it with the opposite meaning: a manufactured article and a hand-made article are entirely different things. Demagogue, decimate, feisty, egregious, officious etc. are some of the words that have changed meaning with time. The following example is probably the most recent example of a word which has extended its meaning or taken on a new signification while at the same time preserving the older one. In other words, addition of meaning of a word is a common Phenomenon. Let us, take the word “box”. This stands for 1) container: 2) amount 3) shape. 4) in a court or theater etc. 5)  small building 6) tree and so on.

3. A word which is normally one part of speech is used as another:

It is one of the characteristics of the English language that it is  possible to use the same word as a noun, verb, adjective and many other parts of speech ‘But’, for instance, is normally  a conjunction; but  when we say ‘But me not buts’ we are using the word as a verb and noun respectively. The most frequent interchange is possibly that between noun and verb. Thus from the noun ‘Google ‘ is search engine is coined the verb to google and the noun party gives us the verb to party. We can elbow or shoulder our way through a crowd, eye a person with suspicion. We can nose around with the object of picking up stray gossip or information. There are also the slang expressions to chin and to lip, to mouth (to abuse; also to move one’s mouth without uttering any sounds), to leg up or to leg over.

It is perhaps worth of nothing except for the point of interest that in many cases where the same word exists as both noun and verb, the stress falls on the first syllable in the former and the second syllable in the latter. Ex: ‘export (noun), to ex’port (verb); ‘doctor (noun), to doc’tor (verb); ‘permit (noun), to per’mit (verb); ‘express (noun), to ex’press (verb); ‘subject (noun), to  sub’ject ( verb); ‘converse (noun), to con’verse (verb); ‘eclipse (noun) to ec’lipse (verb) etc. Sometimes an adjective comes to have the force of a noun through the omission of the substantive which it originally qualified. Again, we speak of an army conducting an offensive, but originally this ‘noun’ was an adjective in the expression “an offensive action”. For instance, a ‘submarine’ is fairly obviously a shortening of a submarine vessel or a ‘submarine boat’, while the noun ‘wireless’ was originally the adjectival part of the expression ‘wireless telegraphy’.

4. By the addition of roots or suffixes and prefixes:

This is one the traditional methods of word – making to be found almost in every language.  The Anglo-Saxons made fairly extensive use of it, taking a simple, root-word (usually a noun or adjective) and adding a suffix to express a related idea. Some like –dom (fiefdom, kingdom, boredom, etc); -ship (Courtship, assistantship, kinship, etc.) and -th (twelfth, mirth, hearth, etc.) are extensively distributed throughout the language, but suffixes -dom, -ship and -th are obsolete in so far as they are no longer used to make new words, now a days. Those still in use are -less (gutless, matchless, moonless, hatless, etc.); -y (sneaky, sticky, filthy, stealthy, etc.); -ish (biggish, clownish, piggish, nightmarish, etc.);  -ling (dangling, sprawling, rambling, etc.), -ness (niggardliness, tightfistedness, sanctimoniousness, etc.); -ate (doctorate, exhilarate, desperate, etc.); -ous (glorious, splendiferous notorious, uxorious, etc.); –ment (debarment, endearment, decampment etc); -ist and -ism (hypnotist, Bolshevist, pacifism, Marxism, etc.); -ette (etiquette, briquette, suffragette, etc).

In the English of the last hundred years prefixes have been employed much more extensively than suffixes, and most of them come from Latin, as ambi- (ambivalent, ambidextrous, etc); anti- ( antipathy, anticoagulation, etc), pre- (prefixing, preciseness), post- (postponement, postmark, etc), ex- (expatriate, extempore, etc,); per- (perpetual, performer), inter- (interpretation, intervention) extra- (extravagance, extralegal, etc);  sub- (Subcontinent, sub-registrar, etc); About the only native prefix still in common use word making is un- (undermine, underlying, understand, etc.) The extent to which words can be multiplied by the addition of a prefix to a basic root is almost unlimited. Thus from simple Latin root vert -to turn, we get convert, retrovert, introvert, extrovert, invert, divert, advert, revert, subvert, pervert, etc. they may not be used by common man as these words are made by the scholar, not by the man in the street. In due course of time, some of them become popularized but others remain some what pedantic so far as spoken English is concerned. They are part of our passive rather than our active vocabulary.

5. By Abbreviation or Clipping:

At precisely, what stage of  history an abbreviation becomes recognized as a word, it is not easy to say; presumably when the full form ceases to be used in ordinary writing and speech, save perhaps by pedants and precisians. Thus exam, though colloquial English, has not yet received literary recognition. Nevertheless, the full form examination is still frequently heard in speech and used in writing in another generation it may perhaps be considered pedantic. The same is true of lab as a shortened form of laboratory and of math for mathematics. But zoo from Zoological park is by now accepted as good English and the term. Bus similarly has superseded omnibus in all but official documents and notices, while photo, bike and pram are leastwise good conversational English if they have not yet been adopted into the literary vocabulary. Latin word Perambulator (to walk about) is syncopated to pram. Once in blue moon, we rarely see that both processes are found in the same word. At one period, when tricycles were in vogue the term trike is frequently heard applied to them, on the analogy of bike. However, word trike disappeared with trikes.

We all, therefore, realize that they are abbreviations although we write them without the conventional full-stop or apostrophe. But there are a number of words employed in everyday speech which the  average person never regards as anything but ‘good old English words’, and which he would be surprised to learn are also all that is left of longer and more cumbersome forms. Mob, for instance is a shortening of the Latin phrase mobile vulgar (literally the fickle crowd), cab comes from French cabriolet, and taxi from taximeter-cabriolet. The colloquial chap is an early 18^th century abbreviation of Chapman (a dealer), miss from mistress, hussy from house wife; hack is a shortened form of hackney. The term wig was originally periwig, while piano is contracted form of pianoforte, and cinema for cinematography while port takes its name from the town of Oporto.

Another type of abbreviation is that by which a rather lengthy and cumbersome Latin phrase is clipped down until only the one or two significant words remain. ‘Status quo’ is a phrase in frequent use in now a days is contracted from status quo anti helium (the state existing before war). Each section of the community has its own abbreviations, constitute a kind of jargon. Though these kinds of abbreviations are not used in spoken form but widely used in written form. The student goes to varsity studies under a prof., takes exam, and then enjoys vac., while the doctor diagnoses a T.B (tuberculosis). The young man striving to gain qualifications for advancement in his profession must obtain a certif. or a dip., while the schoolboy does his H.W. And prep, in Chemmy, etc.

6. By Syncopation:

Syncopate is to shorten or make a word shorter than originally intended to reduce or retrench in length or duration. It is to omit a sound or letter in a word and modify the rhythm by stressing or accenting a weak beat. In phonology, the loss of sounds in the interior of a word is called syncopation (as in ‘fo’c’sle’ for ‘forecastle’). The act of syncopating is the contraction of a word by taking one or more letters or syllables from the middle. For instance, American newspapers routinely syncopate Guantanamo down to Gitmo, while Santa Claus is a Dutch syncopation of “Saint Nicholas”. Bedlam is from Bethlehem — the hospital of St. Mary of Bethlehem while Exeter is the modern spelling of “Exchester”. Other examples are once, else, hence, which originally were ones, elles, henes all pronounced as syllables. Past Participle like born, shorn, worn, forlorn are likewise the result of syncopation, since a all at one time had termination -en.

7. By Telescoping or Telescopia:

The contraction of a phrase, word, or part of a word, on the analogy of a telescope being closed: biodegradable for biologically degradable; sitcom for situation comedy. There are two main processes: (1) Adapting classical combining forms through reducing the first word in a compound or fixed phrase: when biologically degradable is telescoped to biodegradable, bio- refers not to life alone but to biology; when telephone communications is reduced to telecommunications, tele- refers to the whole technology of remote communication. (2) Creating syllabic ACRONYMS like sitcom and blends like smog. The reduction of a series of words to some of their component syllables (or syllable-like elements) creates such new usages as sitrep for situation report, Saceur for Supreme Allied Commander Europe and such forms are common in military, industrial, and technical usage.

This process is something akin to the previous one, but here two words are combined to one. The verbs to don and to doff, for instance are the result of the telescoping of do on and do off.  While the expression ‘to dout a fire’ (fairly common in southern Yorkshire and Cheshire) is a telescoped form of do out. Similar is the case with the verb to atone, though in this case a process known as ‘back-formation’ is also involved. The earliest example of the expression quoted by the oxford dictionary is at one (two words), used adverbially and dated 1300. By 1557 telescoping had taken place and the single word atone had resulted, though it was still adverbial in force.  More recent examples of this process are pinafore and overall.

8. By Met-analysis or Re-analysis or Transposing of Letters:

Closely, akin again, to telescoping is the process known to students of language as met-analysis; i.e. re-analysis (from the Greek). We all know how, in slovenly pronunciation, the phrase at home becomes a tome, or how a flashing eye becomes flashing guy, science and arts become science and darts etc., The consonant at the end of one word has become attached to the vowel at the beginning of  the next and so by re-analysis a new combination is  formed. Certain words which have long been use in normal, Standard English came into existence in this manner. For example, many people today enjoy ( or suffer from ?) a nick name; But until the middle of the 15^th century they would have had an ‘ickname’. The first syllable ick – is a variant of the old word eke, meaning also. An ickname that is to say, was an ‘also-name’, that is one which was bestowed upon a person in addition his real one. But in the course of years the final ‘n’ of ‘an’ became attached to the beginning of the next word and so was evolved the modern term.

Sometimes the process works the other way and the article a steals n from the noun that follows it. Thus an auger (1594) is derived from the earlier form a nauger. Today, if we play cricket, we must appeal to the umpire; but prior to 1480 or thereabouts it would have been a numpire – an anglicized form of the French non pair (unequaled). So also an adder (1377) was originally a nadder, an apron(1535) a napron and an orange (early 13^th century) a norange.

9. Portmanteau Words:

When a part of one word is combined with the part of another in order to form a new word, carrying with it the ideas behind both the original terms, we have what is known as a ‘portmanteau word’. For example, when he wished to find a part of the humanity in his day who considered themselves socially superior because they possessed a gig, Carlyle coined the term gigmanity, and to suggest the idea of galloping in triumph, Lewis Caroll invented the verb to galumph. The first of these, of course became obsolete when the gig went out of fashion.

Nonetheless, considerable number of words which are now part of our general vocabulary originated in this way. Tragi-comedy, for instance, is quite clearly the result of combination of tragedy and comedy, while melodrama comes from melody and drama, for the early 19^th century. Telecasting is a word coined when two words Television and broadcasting are combined. Lunch is said to be originated in a combination of lump and hunch and at one time Messrs. Lyons’ Corner Houses on their menu a dish known as brunch, explained (by Walter de la Mare, in one of his essay’s ) as being a portmanteau form of breakfast and lunch. Then there is radiogram, from radio-set and gramophone and electrocute from electric and execute. Advertorial,  exurb,  rollick,  spokes-model, pennant,  mingy, cinematheque, blaxploitation, carmine, stagflation, bumbershoot, futilitarian, etc. are also portmanteau words  though some of  them are recently formed.

10. Words manufactured from Initials:

In certain cases, initials have become more commonly used than the actual words for which they stand, so that they can almost be regard as words in themselves. Thus we usually speak of a B.A or an M.A rather than a Bachelor of Arts or Master of Arts and a Q.C., and M.P., a J.P., and I.O.U., etc., Every one knows what we meant by the C.I.D., and none but the very pedantic would ever think of abandoning these initials in favor of the words for which they stand (even if they knew them, which the majority probably do not).And it is the same with W.V.S., R.A.M.C., B.B.C., etc.

11. Back-formation:

Another means by which new words have come into existence is through the process known as back-formation. Most back-formations are the result of misunderstanding although a few have been intentional. The principle and the way in which it works can best be explained by taking practical examples. In the 16^th and early 17^th centuries there was an adverb groveling, meaning ‘in abject manner, on the ground’. Thus one could say, ‘He lay groveling in the dust’, Where the word would be an adverb of manner. But then the termination -ing was mistaken for the sign of present participle and this erroneous idea received encouragement from the fact that in most contexts where the word occurred, a present participle certainly makes sense. Having then, transformed the adverb to a participle, the next step was to work back from this to an infinitive to grovel, and so, through a totally mistaken idea, a new verb was added to English language.

The nouns beggar, pedlar, hawker and editor have given us the corresponding verbs to beg, to peddle, to hawk, to edit, etc. Other example is noun bus gave rise to bus, a verb. Or to come rather nearer to the present day at the beginning of the 20^th century, there was in very common use a verb to maffick signifying to go wild with joy. Its origin is traceable to the wild scenes of rejoicing that took place in London to celebrate the relief of Mafeking during the Boer war. From resurrection a verb to resurrect has been formed, in defiance of all laws of etymology; conscription has given us a verb to conscript though actually we should say conscribe (as same analogy with inscription, inscribe, subscription, subscribe) into this class of spurious derivatives also fall to peeve (from peevish), to audit (from auditor), to donate (from donation) , to burgle (from burglar), gloom (from gloomy), sidle (from sidling) and greed (from greedy). One of the latest examples is  the American enthuse, from enthusiast, but this has not yet been accepted into English but it is employed extensively. Ass, emote, admix, aesthete, adulate, etc. are also back formations.

12. Unnecessary Pluralizations and Words with Novel Pluralizations:

the noun ‘pea‘ never appeared in the English language until the last few years of the 16^th century before that time one always spoke of a pease, but after a while this was felt to be a plural and a new singular was coined. Cherry, similarly is a false singular form the older cheris (Fr. Cerise). Virtuoso, nu-men, opus, occiput, trousseau, os, calcar, arcanum, gravamen, corpus, lemma, cherub, chrysalis, stigma, etc are some other words with novel pluralizations.

13. Corruption or Misunderstanding:

Anyone who has heard a person ignorant of foreign languages attempting to pronounce some French or German tag will readily appreciate the way in which the mangling and corruption of such phrases may occasionally be responsible for bringing  a new word into language. Soldiers returning from France during the war of 1914-1918 had a old repertoire of these terms. S’il vous plait became ‘civil play’. Nor are examples lacking from literature, most of us will recall the  Dickensian character Micawber’s papa, says experientia does it (actually the Latin ‘experientia docet’ i.e. experience teaches). The majorities of such corruptions or misunderstandings have remained slang and disappeared quicky but a few, like camouflage, have remained.

The word ‘whitsua’ is certainly a corruption of this sort. ‘Whit Sunday’ was originally signified ‘White Sunday’, Because on that day, in primitive Christian Church, all converts wore white robes, as a symbol of purification. However, by metanalysis Whit Sunday was transformed to ‘Whitsun Day’, and then, on analogy of this, at a latter date, Whitsun Week, Whitsuntide, Whitsun Sunday. Even goodbye, the most frequent salutation used between friends at parting, is a garbled form of ”God be with ye”, ‘drat it’ is a euphemism for ‘God rot it’, just as ‘blimey’ (still a vulgarism) is contracted from ‘May God blind me’. Jeopardy, likewise, is a corruption of the French ‘jeu parti’ (an evenly matched game) later garbled and  now it means the more abstract idea of the risk itself.

14. False Etymology and Folk Etymology:

A false etymology is any assumed or postulated etymology that is incorrect whereas Folk etymology, in its basic sense, refers to popularly held (and often false) beliefs about the origins of specific words, especially where these originate in “common-sense” assumptions rather than serious research. There are certain teeming numbers in the English language which have, attained their present forms or their present-day usage, through mistaken notations regarding their etymology. One instance if such a word has already been given in island; another is posthumous, which originally spelt without the h, meant ‘coming after in order of time’. But by a mistake of etymology the second half of the word, -humous was assumed to be connected with death and burial, and so the meaning ‘after death’ developed.

Asparagus, which became sparrow-grass; butt-naked from the term buck-naked; shamefaced from shame-fast ‘caught in shame’: and lanthorn (as old lanterns were glazed with strips of cows’ horn) from lantern are examples of folk etymology which is also a kind of false etymology. Blunderbuss, brass monkey, Brent Goose, craw-fish, dormouse, ducking stool, hamburger, poll tax, rake-hell, sincere, Welsh rabbit are other examples of false etymology. Humble-pie, kick-shaw, wiseacre, rake-hell, chaise lounge etc. are words evolved using folk etymologies.

15. Slang terms with the lapse of time, come to be accepted into the literary vocabulary as ‘good English’:

The reflection that many words which today are no longer regarded as vulgar, profane, abusive, indecent, blasphemous, uncouth or low, and even indispensable. The very word ‘slang’ itself is a comparative newcomer, of obscure and none too respectable origin. It seems only to have come into general use about 1756. Before that time the type of language which we now call slang was designed cant, and was employed mainly by thieves, smugglers and the underworld, generally.

Until the beginning of the 18^th century it was ignored by lexicographers and students of language alike. Among many dictionaries of this kind came in existence like: A Dictionary of the Canting Crew(1700), A New Canting Dictionary (1725) and (the most important of them all) Francis Grose’s Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue(1785).

To the student of language these works are invaluable, for a perusal of them will reveal the origin of a number of words which today are perfectly good and respectable English. In 1725, for example, we find that the following words, amongst others, were slang bet (a wager), cove (man, fellow, rogue), chap (a dealer in stolen goods), fun (a slippery trick), jilt (a tricking woman), prig (a thief), shabby (in a poor state), balderdash (adulterated wine), blackguard (a shabby fellow), coax (to wheedle). Kidnap was also a cant term at this time though its applications was restricted  to the practice which the word literally suggests i.e. ‘Kid-nabbing‘ or child stealing, then a very lucrative trade. Most of these it will be noticed are still in the language, today. Precisely when a word ceases to be slang and becomes “good English” it is difficult to say; presumably when it begins to be used by representative writers and finds its way into the speech of normally educated people or is used on more or less formal occasions without appearing in any way incongruous. It has been observed, Latest example of a slang word is “sex” and sees how this process is working. ‘Sex’ at one time only meant sex between man and woman but now the term is generalized and it also gives the meaning gender.

16. Words Derived from Proper or Personal Names:

Even excluding scientific and technical terms, where such formations abound, a long list could be compiled of words in the English language which are derived from proper or personal names. Thomas More gave us Utopia and the adjective Utopian as a derivative, while from swift came Lilliput and Lilliputian. Gamp, as a synonym for Umbrella is of course a legacy of Dickens’ well-known character Mrs. Gamp; and the same writer is responsible for coinage of words like Bumbledom, a Wellerism and a Pickwickian sense, though  most of them are not use now that Dickens is no longer the popular author that he was a generation ago. The adjective namby-pamby originated as a nickname bestowed upon the writer Ambrose Phillips by a fellow poet of the early 18^th century, Henry Carey in virtue of his childish verse. In sadism and sadist is perpetuated the evil reputation of the Marquis De Sade (1740-1814), who combined sexual perversion with a lust for cruelty. A number of words of this type are still unexplained and will probably always remain so. Why is cheese on toast called a Welsh rabbit, and who was the  Toby who gave his name to jug?  Nobody knows though some explanation is always possible.

Two fairly recent words to be derived from personal names are probably Belisha-beacon from Mr. Hore Belsiha. And Biro pen, from its inventor (1943), Lazlo Biro, but it has come to be used colloquially for any kind of ball pen, and a verb to biro has even been formed from it. It is observed through research bradmanesque (Bradman’s name has become an archetypal name for outstanding excellence,) is the latest coined word of this sort. Dunce, pants, sandwich lynch, Baedeker, Casanova, caucus, aceldama, babel and shillelagh are other examples of this kind.

17.  Word Blends or Combination of words to form a New Word:

This is not quite the same process as syncopation, noticed earlier in the present article, here no syllable is lost. Words like weekday, goldfish, blackbird, railway, waterproof etc., are quite clearly – just a combination of two other words, sometimes a noun and an adjective, sometimes a noun proceeded by another noun which is used with  something of an adjectival force. Occasionally we find that the two elements are hyphenated: e.g., dug-out, lean-to, air -raid. This method of combination is not extensively used now- a-days, though frequently used in the past.

How many for instance, would realize that daisy is really day’s eye, that bonfire was originally bone-fire, that lord and lady come from hlaford and hlaefdige (guardian and kneader of the bread respectively), that the Anglo-Saxon form of woman was wlfman (i.e. female person) and that the modern world is really a combination of the two words wer and eld (i.e. the generation of man). But if these are very ancient examples of combination, others are not of such long standing as we might suppose. Other examples for this are Whitehorse, weekend, blue-rose, hotheaded, fathead, goof-ball, blackboard, horseman, storekeeper, cinema-goer, chalkboard, football, softball, cenotaph, endogamy, setiform, geoponic are words made using by combing forms.

18. Conscious and Deliberate Coinages:

When a new invention or discovery is made there not only arises the necessity of finding a name for it, but it brings in its train a whole host of fresh ideas and fresh conceptions, so that a need is soon felt for words to express them. Thus the vocabulary is enlarged by the addition of coinages. There are, of course, various principles underlying the process, but the chief characteristic of a coinage is that an entirely new word is created as it were from nowhere. Not infrequently, we find several attempts made before a term is finally settled on as a satisfactory. Thus the earliest name of a bicycle was velocipede, and what we now call an aeroplane was at one time known as a flying machine. But having found a name for the machine itself, there arouse the difficulty of finding one for the person who flew it. For some years aviator was employed, a cumbersome term, from the Latin avis (a bird). Then this was replaced by airman, which has apparently come to stay. The invention of wireless likewise gave rise to a number of coinages.

The classical tongues have proved a happy hunting ground for the word coiner. Scientists and inventors particularly have drawn upon them. From the Greek, we have oxygen, logic, biology, astronomy, photograph, telephone, telegram, telegraph, gramophone, microscope, automaton etc., from Latin Radiator, propeller, sinecure, impromptu, and extempore. Scientists and inventors are in general not linguists their words are made for convenience and expressiveness, not for euphony and consequently they had never shown any aversion to hybrids if they served their purpose. Teetotal, booboisie, ekistics, agnostic, meme and bombinate are newly coined words in English.

19. Loanwords or Borrowed Words or Borrowings:

A loanword (or loan word) is a word borrowed from one language and incorporated into another. Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). One of the chief characteristics of English is its teeming vocabulary, an estimated 80% of which has come from other languages! Linguistic borrowing has occurred over many centuries, whenever English speakers have come into contact with other cultures, whether through conquest and colonization, trade and commerce, immigration, leisure travel, or war.

Anger, blight, by-law, cake, call, clumsy, doze, hale, husband, kindle, scathe, scorch, scowl, scrape, scrub, skirt, sky, sly, take, they, thrall, etc. are Scandinavian words in English. Blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, kindergarten, Oktoberfest, schuss, Bundt, spritz, strudel, etc. are derived from German.

Alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon, coyote, embargo, enchilada, marijuana, mesa mosquito, mustang, ranch, tortilla, etc. are borrowings from Spanish. Agile, compensate, dexterity, discus, excavate, expensive, fictitious, insane, janitor, meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician, vindicate, etc. are Latin loanwords in English. Dynasty, epiglottis, polyglot, anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, critic, ecstasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, tragedy are borrowed from Greek. Adventure, courage, devout, feign,  magic, male, female, ballet, bouillabaisse, Cabernet, chic, quiche, rouge, roulette, etc. are French words in English. Avatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga are Sanskrit loanwords. Bangle, bungalow, chintz, cot, cummerbund, dungaree, juggernaut, maharajah, nabob, shampoo, thug, jamboree etc. are Hindi borrowings in English. Bandicoot is from pandikoku; mongoose from mungeesa of Telugu or mungusi of Kannada. Japanese, Arabic, Urdu, Yiddish, Italian, Dutch, Flemish, Russian, Dravidian, Persian, African languages, Chinese, American Indian languages are some important languages whose influence has been felt in English.

20. Freak Formations:

Under this heading might have been included the word tank (the military weapon). But possibly the best instances are teetotal and tandem, the former if which is said to have originated from t-total. Any one with a slight knowledge of Latin will not need to be told that in that language tandem is a temporal adverb meaning ‘at length.’ Thus when two horses were placed in front of the other to draw a vehicle, some humorist named the combination a tandem, as the beasts were ‘at length’; and when later the double bicycle appeared this also was called a tandem. Funny-bone again, is a scholastic pun upon the anatomical term humerus, and publican. Most of the times such words are forgotten almost as soon as they are made but a few will stay.

Point of the Discussion- Antiquated and Latest ways of forming

We have distinguished the chief ways in which words are formed or added to the language in or before 19^th century But it may be asked, how do these words come to be introduced what is the motive behind enlargement of the vocabulary and what factors determine whether such additions become a permanent part of language or enjoy temporary currency and then become obsolete? Generally, it is  said, a new word is called forth by a need for it or a consciousness that no existing word is adequate to fill that need: a new idea or conception is to be expressed new or newly adopted products, fashions, etc. must be given a name. Whether the new word thus created or added to the vocabulary permanently stays or not depends upon the permanence of the objects they  describe.

Modern Mays of Word Formation

In addition to above antiquated methods, bountiful newfangled methods are employed in word formation are discussed below.

21.  Acronyms and Initialisms and Truncations :

Note, however, that there are 3 types of abbreviations; the most common being acronyms, intialisms and truncations.

I) Acronym – (a type of abbreviation) – It is always spoken, read and considered as a word.

Acronyms stand for a phrase. Such as ASAP; it means “as soon as possible.”  A word formed from the initial parts (letters OR syllables OR arbitrary parts) of a name or phrase. Acronyms are always pronounced as words. The following are good examples:
a) NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization; b)Aids – acquired immune deficiency syndrome c) FIFA – Federation Internationale De Football Association; d)Hoax – comes from hocus-pocus,
e)Laser – Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission from Radiation; f)Radar – Radio detection and ranging; g) NIMBY – not in my backyard Nincompoop – the Latin non compos mentis (not of sound mind) USA, U.K, USSR, SBH, RBI, RRB, WB, NY, AP,  etc. are also acronyms.

II) Initialism – (a type of abbreviation) – Abbr. initialism (speak: spell-out or read letter by letter)
A group of initial letters used as an abbreviation for a name or expression, each letter being pronounced separately. For example, “BBC” = British Broadcasting Corporation, or “PBS” (Public Broadcasting System).  The key difference between an acronym and  initialism is that an acronym forms a new word, while an initalism does not. The following are examples of intialism.

ASL – Age/Sex/Location; NVM – Never Mind; TY – Thank You; BRB –  Be Right Back; WB – Welcome Back and NY – New York; CTBT – Comprehensive Test  Ban Treaty; NRI – Non Resident of India; Bhel – Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited, AIR – All India Radio; and etc.

III) Truncation – (a type of abbreviation) (It is spoken as a word or it is read as a word)
It is a kind of abbreviation of a word, consisting only of the first part of the word. Truncations are always pronounced as single word unlike abbreviations. Most often used in a context (such as for mail) where certain words must be written (and read) repetitively and not in formal situation. when the truncated words are used in speech, they are considered as an informal words though very few are considered as normal words. For instance sign, pram and exam are accepted as normal words. Examples: Tues. = Tuesday; Dec. = December; Minn. = Minnesota; Eur = Europe; Cam = Camera exam = examination; Pak. = Pakistan; Jan = January; sign = signature, radio = radiogram, etc.

22. With the Invention of Computer Technology:

With the invention of computer by Charles Babbage many new words walked into English. To learn something about computer technology has become vogue in the society. Here a few words are taken for instance. Blue-ray is a DVD format for storing high-definition video; consecration – to pull all things together into one. Router – a device that finds the best path for a data packet to be sent from one network to another, etc. are few words terms doing rounds in English language. Terminal Adapter, browser, kilobyte, download, floppy, modem, hacker, map-reduce, pervert, Babbage, telecommuting, teleconference, Viruses, Spy-ware, hardware, software, buffer, bugbear, database, data-card, interface, web, website, bandwidth, attenuation, amplified,  gadgets, multimedia, web-washer, etc. are some words which have come in being with evolution of computer technology. This list may go up like anything as computer technology is ruling the roost in the society.

23. With the Advent of Other Latest Technologies: The word “technology” can be used to refer to a collection of techniques. Technology provides recent examples. We borrowed karaoke from Japanese in 1979. One of the most recent arrivals is the Hawaiian word wiki, which the OED defines as “A type of web page designed so that its content can be edited by anyone who accesses it”, giving an example from 2006. Aniome: The whole set of any biologically relevant things in the universe. Biostructome: The whole set of biological structures. Conductome: The whole set of conducting biological entities in cells. Nanomics: the study of nanomes and also a bioventure company name are the words came in existance when the new technology was introduced. Technopop, geek, nanobot, angstrom, light-year, terraform, covalence, catalyst, surfactant, antidote, bioviolence, forensics, radiology, Biological psychology, and Cognitive neuroscience, dysfunction, vaccine, parapsychology, traumatic, Paranoia, Schizophrenia, pathology, nonproliferation, patholome, Peptidome, thylomics, etc. are other technical worlds in English. Most of them are associated with new technology.

24. Formation of the Longest Words in English: A polysyllabic WORD, especially of LATIN or GREEK origin, and often uncommon and difficult to spell or pronounce, such as diuretic or phantasmagorical. People often ask what the longest word in English might be, but the answer depends on what can be accepted as a word. Some chemical combinations have names of over 1,000 letters, but these are usually amalgams of combining elements rather than words as such. The longest word in the 1st edition of the OED floccinaucinihilipilification of 29 letters which give the meaning, ‘the action or habit of estimating something as worthless’, unofficially, with the Supplement of 1982 topped with the lung disease pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis (45 letters). Even longer still is Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia, at 36 characters, it is the fear of long words. Antidisestablishmentarianism, pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism, etc. are also longest words in English. In terms of sheer size, the longest word to be found in Britain is the Welsh place name Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch.

25 Toponyms: Toponyms can be both place names, real or imaginary, as well as names derived from places or regions. Toponyms are found in many different arenas of industry, enterprise, culture, and current events. It is not unusual to find toponyms used for places that recall other places, as well as wars, treaties and agreements, bands, food, and fabric, among other items. Toponym is itself a branch of onomastics, the study of names of all kinds. Toponymy is distinct, though often confused with etymology, which is the study of the origins of words. Sometimes toponyms are accepted as words. Doolally or dolally — is an adjective which means “mad” or “eccentric”, (e.g. “to go dolally”), ultimately named after Deolali, a fort in the North West Frontier of colonial India (now Pakistan). Bungalow — a low building or house, from a Gujarati word meaning “Bengalese”. Bohemian — term refers to artists, writers, and others who wished to live an unconventional, “gypsy” lifestyle; from Bohemia. Rosetta stone, Philadelphia lawyer, Boeotian, byzantine, pearl harbor, Bridewell, Philadelphia lawyer, ghetto, chartreuse, Rubicon, Parthia, Coventry, magenta are also toponyms.

26. Eponyms: An eponym is a word derived from the name of a real, fictional, mythical or spurious character or person. Most eponyms originate from a person’s surname: boycott, for instance, from the Irish landlord Captain Charles Cunningham Boycott; dahlia, from the Swedish botanist Anders Dahl; the sousaphone, from the American bandmaster John Philip Sousa; and volt, from the Italian physicist Count Alessandro Volta. Many eponymous words come from literary, biblical or mythological sources; Dickensian, from the English writer Charles Dickens; and aphrodisiac, from the Greek goddess of love and beauty Aphrodite. There are thousands of eponyms in everyday use in English today and study of them yields a fascinating insight into the rich heritage of the world’s most popular language and its development. Here are some more examples of names that have been immortalized in such a way. Jun: Junoesque Juno, Roman goddess of the moon, women and marriage. Pandora’s box; Pandora (‘all gifts’), in Greek mythology, the first woman. Rolls-Royce, Charles Stewart Rolls (1877-1910) and Sir Frederick Henry Royce (1836-1933), English car manufacturers are few examples. Potemkin village, colonel blimp, Simple Simon, rover boy, tatters-all, titian, Sherlock, yellow journalism, Hoyle, Manichean, jeremiad, nemesis are also eponyms.

27. Contranyms:

This is a list of auto-antonyms in English — that is, words which in and of themselves have two or more generally accepted meanings in the English language that directly or generally contradict each other. Such words are also known as antagonyms, contronyms, and words having self-contradictions. Many such contra-definitions arise from slang usage. Others develop as a result of their frequent use in sarcasm. There are two forms of contranyms: homographic, where two words with the same spelling can have opposing definitions; and homophonic, where two words with the same pronunciation can have opposing definitions. In general, the terms below are both homographic and homophonic contranyms.

a) raise/raze: build up / cut down; b) petalless/petalous: without petals / with petals; 3) oral/aural: pertaining to speech / pertaining to hearing; d) bound: moving (e.g. homeward bound) / unable to move (e.g. housebound); e) dry: having no water, such as alcohol / having no alcohol fast: moving quickly / unable to move f) resign: (two pronunciations) cease working for / continue working for are instances for contranyms. Chuffed, sententious, endsville, simon-pure, continuance, quiddity are other examples of contranyms.

28. Reduplicatives – Double Delight:

“Reduplicatives never travel alone. In fact, they always come in pairs and sometimes sound rather silly. These are the words formed through reduplication, when you repeat a word to form a new one, or slightly change the vowel or consonant”, says Sharon. These are inventive and musical words and there are hundreds of them in English. This type of word formation seems to come naturally to us. Shakespeare was responsible for hurly-burly, which is still in use, as well as other reduplicatives that are rarely seen outside the plays. Recent additions to the genre include the chick-flick, a film geared towards women. At least one word in the pair must be a nonsense word in reduplicates. Here are some common reduplicatives. Repeating the same word, rhyming and vowel changes are the different ways of forming reduplicates. The following are examples for redupilcatives: arsy-vary, heebie-jeebies, hodge-podge, hoity-toity, itsy-bitsy, jeepers creepers, hubble-bubble, riprap, niminy-piminy, holus-bolus, bling-bling, jimjams, pooh-pooh, razzmatazz, tussie-mussie, herky-jerky, knickknack, wishy-washy, shilly-shally and mishmash are redupicatives.

29. Heteronyms: Heteronyms are a type of homograph. They are words that are spelled the same but differ in meaning and pronunciation. All heteronyms are also homographs, but not all homographs are heteronyms. Many heteronyms are similar in meaning (especially a related noun and verb are spelled the same but pronounced differently), while others are wholly unrelated. Examples are: Lead, pronounced LEED, means to guide. However, lead, pronounced LED, means a metallic element. 2) Converse – (CON-verse) opposite; (con-VERSE) to talk 3) Convict – (CON-vict) prisoner; (con-VICT) to find guilty 4) Crooked – (CROOKD) bended; (CROOK-ed) bent 4) deliberate – (de-LIB-er-ate) carefully considered; (de-lib-er-ATE) to consider, etc.

30. Miscellaneous Ways

1)Words formed from proper names are bowdlerize, braille, lynch, pasteurize, platonic, etc.

2) Vegan, speciesism, factory, farming, cartesian, karuna, etc. are words from guest Wordsworth Matt Ball, founder of Vegan Outreach.

3) Fussbudget, rangy, frowzy, looby dyspeptic, nebbish eshuga, strident, losel, crapehanger, tetchy acolyte, gerent, senescent, juvenescent, impetuous, pusillanimous are words to describe people.

4) Paper tiger, loose cannon, sacred cow, tenderfoot, etc. are metaphorical descriptions of people.

5) Propinquity, interdict, sanguine, irascible, etc. are words coined or used by Darwin and Lincoln.

6) Syncretic, cohere, endemic, abrogate, sui generis, etc. are words from Barrack Obama.

7) Bird-dog, wildcatter, frog-march, mawkish, shrew, harridan, cavalier spavined, the words derived from animals. Asinine, bovine, etc. are animal-related words that are used metaphorically.

8) Columbarium, pied, roustabout, crestfallen, canard, etc. are the words derived from birds.

9) Dingle, supererogatory, deleterious, oligarchy, moliminous, lugubrious, multeity, scorbutic, tittle, wattle, bollard, flews, reeding, halyard, hyoid, etc. are all words for miscellany.

10) Willy-nilly, druthers, prithee, blimey, hidalgo, etc. are formed by contraction.

11)  Cenotaph, endogamy, setiform, noctilucent, geoponic,  trichology, chirography, algophobia,    leptodactylous are the words made using combining forms.

12) Catch-22, eighty-six, two-fisted, twenty-twenty, foursquare, four-flush are words with numbers.

13) What would you ask words if you could speak with them? – Synonym, thesaurus, mnemonic, dyslexic, onomatopoeia, anagram, palindrome etc.

14) Sobriquet, erudite, indite, pentimento, cockamamie, etc. are words with interesting etymologies.

15) Diaphanous, lucubrate coetaneous, pellucid are words randomly walked through the dictionary.

16) Words that appear to be misspellings are therefor, prorogue, dissert, ressentiment, recision

17) Argal, sobeit, henceforward, wheresoever, albeit, for-why, etc. are unusual conjunctions.

18) Stalworth, selcouth, peradventure, dehort, latchet are archaic words.

19) Words related to movie making Foley, grip, gaffer, best-boy, Foley, stunt-man, etc.

20) Fustilugs, pot-valiant, blunderbuss, benighted, zoophyte rampallion, effete, scut, hubba-hubba, spondulicks, shellac, mopery, muggle, gear-head, bumf, etc. are slang terms or insults.

21) Sylph, giglet, milady, minx, feme, nubile sol etc. are words to describe women.

22) Bravura, crescendo, gamut, coda, finale are words from music.

23) Terpsichorean, eolian, herculean, Elysian, Promethean, etc. are words from Greek mythology.

24) Ahimsa, satyagraha, iniquity, stripling, abjure, actuate, etc. are from Gandhi’s autobiography.

26) Scart, prad, bort, gride, scrimmage, etc. are words formed by metathesis or transposing letters.

27) Stick-in-the-mud, hole-in-the-wall, bred-in-the-bone, down-at-the-heel, straight-from-the-shoulder, catch-as-catch-can, hail-fellow-well-met, etc. are Idioms.

28) Ambrosia, carnivore, herbivorous, brasserie, bulimarexia, baker’s dozen, flavor of the month, red-herring, banana republic, chew the fat, etc. are the words related to eating and food.

29) Verisimilitude, kine, gyp, spendthrift, brougham are words with unusual arrangement of letters.

30) Osculate, vinculum, singularity, protracts, involution, congruent are words derived from math.

31) Vim, fey, gest, kip, dun, purl, maw, erg, lee, heft, tor, ret, etc. are short words made.

32) Sounder, nide, covey, pod, skein, skulk, bevy, etc. are collective nouns.

33) Ambrosia, carnivore, herbivorous, bain-marie, brasserie, bulimarexia, baker’s dozen, flavor of the month, red-herring, banana republic, chew the fat, etc. are the words related to eating and food..                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 

Conclusion

As one of the three elements of language, vocabulary is sensitive to the fastest change. Modern English vocabulary distributed in many areas always keeps developing. Though scholars at home and abroad make great progress on English new words, it is far from satisfaction. This paper, which is based on the previous findings, begins with the definition of English new words and its study actuality. As new vocabulary is a mirror of social development, the source of its improvement distributes in more than ten semantic fields reflecting the ever-changing contemporary world in an all-round way.

Besides, the research article investigates the formation of English new words which is on the basis of traditional word-formation rules and its unique feature. Lastly, the paper analyses the prospects of new English words which are characterized by continuous in number, various sources in borrowing and a tendency to be short in form. It is hoped that the present study will stimulate English learners’ interest in studying English new words and help them enlarge their vocabulary in order to meet the demand of new ideas, theories and science technology. let this article end, with a hope that readers, common people, scholars, pedants, students experts explore into world of English vocabulary swimmingly as many newfangled ideas took the driver’s seat and snowballed into discussion in it.

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