#38, Research Paper: Effective Language Learning by Melahat Jahansouz

Effective Language Learning

By Melahat Jahansouz

Effective Language Learning

By Melahat Jahansouz

Introduction

According to cognitive psychology, there is no doubt that learners are not passive when learning a foreign or second language, but they are actively involved. According to a study conducted by Lilly Wong Fillmore (1982), language use patterns, organization for instructional activities, and the student composition of classrooms interact to produce either high levels or low levels of language learning. Factors stemming from the way in which classrooms are organized for instruction are within the control of the teacher. Over the last few decades a gradual but significant shift has taken place, resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning as Northeast Conference (1990) entitled “Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner” and annual “Learners’ Conferences” held in conjunction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on “the learner-centered curriculum” (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and “learner-centeredness as language education” (Tutor ,I. 1996). If teachers want to help their students become independent and successful, they need to help them develop appropriate learning strategies so they can deal with language tasks successfully. Language programs must have the support of principals, teachers, parents, and the community. Teachers and administrators should understand that native language instruction provides the foundation for achieving high levels of English proficiency (Cummins, 1994; Krashen, 1991; Thomas & Collier, 1997). Students must have access to high-quality instruction designed to help them meet high expectations. Teachers should employ strategies known to be effective with English learners, such as drawing on their prior knowledge; providing opportunities to review previously learned concepts and teaching them to employ those concepts; organizing themes or strands that connect the curriculum across subject areas; and providing individual guidance, assistance, and support to fill gaps in background knowledge. A language learning strategy is ‘like a tactic used by a player. It is a series of skills used with a particular learning process in mind’ (Williams and Burden 2002:145). Some of these strategies are observable but most are mental processes that are not directly observable. Both observable and non observable strategies help students become autonomous and successful language learners.

Definitions of Language Learning Strategies

Within L2/FL education, a number of definitions of LLS have been used by key figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language — to incorporate these into one’s interlanguage competence” (p. 67). Rubin (1987) later wrote that LS “are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly” (p. 22). In their seminal study, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p. 1). Finally, building on work in her book for teachers (Oxford, 1990), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS (i.e., “In learning ESL, Trang watches U.S. TV soap operas, guessing the meaning of new expressions and predicting what will come next”) and this helpful definition:

…language learning strategies — specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992/1993, p. 18)

Language Learning Strategies are Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching

After Canale and Swain’s (1980) influential article recognized the importance of communication strategies as a key aspect of strategic (and thus communicative) competence, a number of works appeared about communication strategies in L2/FL teaching. An important distinction exists, however, between communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990). For all L2 teachers who aim to help develop their students’ communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS “…are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence” (p. 1). LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners.

Three types of social LLS are noted in Oxford (1990a): asking questions, co-operating with others, and empathizing with others (p. 21). General examples of LLS given in each of these categories are as follows:

Asking questions

Asking for clarification or verification
Asking for correction
Co-operating with others

Co-operating with peers
Co-operating with proficient users of the new language
Empathizing with others

Developing cultural understanding
Becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings (Oxford, 1990a, p. 21)
Learning Strategy in different domains
Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as “behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence the learner’s encoding process” (p. 315). Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as “behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information” (p. 11). These early definitions from the educational literature reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, with its essential assumptions that human beings process information and that learning involves such information processing. Clearly, LS are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context. LS are thus used in learning and teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments.

Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarizes her view of LLS. She states that LLS:

allow learners to become more self-directed
expand the role of language teachers
are problem-oriented
involve many aspects, not just the cognitive
can be taught
are flexible
are influenced by a variety of factors.
(Oxford, 1990a, p. 9)

Characteristics of Effective L2 Classrooms

According to a study conducted by Lilly Wong Fillmore (1982), language use patterns, organization for instructional activities, and the student composition of classrooms interact to produce either high levels or low levels of language learning. Wong Fillmore found the following to be salient characteristics of classrooms that promote L2 learning:

1- In classes with a wide range of language abilities, the students were grouped by language ability for instruction within their classroom. These groupings were flexible and temporary, changing according to learners’ growing language proficiencies.

2-Some subjects were taught in the unfamiliar language L2, while others were taught in familiar language the L1.

3-When the unfamiliar language was used as the medium of instruction, the teacher made special efforts to use the language in a way that made it possible for the students to understand the content.

4-Numerous occasions each day were provided for members of each group to interaction with each other in large and small group activities.

5-Classes were organized around highly-structured, teacher-directed activities. Both whole group and small group activities were nearly always teacher directed.

6-Lessons were conducted either in the home language or in the second language; a single lesson rarely included both L1 and L2.

7-Students were called on frequently to respond, either as individuals or as a group.

8-Teachers used the L1 occasionally during instruction in English to explain concepts that could not be demonstrated non-verbally and would otherwise be difficult to understand in L2. The home language was used for explanation, not for translation.

Using Standards to Integrate Academic Language into ESL Fluency

ESL standards can have a significant impact on ESL student achievement by integrating academic language into the ESL curriculum. This student population needs to focus on goals of academic competence, focusing on areas such as literacy, vocabulary, critical thinking, social skills and learning strategies. The ESL standards provide structure and guidance that can help to increase student academic success (Beckett & Haley, 2000).

By linking the ESL standards to state academic standards, we can ensure that ESL students will receive high quality instruction in English language and content areas.

The TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) standards were developed to provide teachers with scope and sequence of the language skills that ESL students need for success in our nation’s classrooms. The standards are:

1) to use English to communicate in social settings,

2) to use English to achieve academically in all content areas, and

3) to use English in socially and culturally appropriate ways.

Several strategies are offered by the authors to develop competency in social use of English. They suggest the use of seating arrangements (such as round tables, quads or pairs) to encourage social interaction. Teachers can also try to structure opportunities for students to use English outside of the classroom. Cooperative learning encourages the use of language in a social manner. Positive social interaction can help students perceive the classroom as a comfortable and friendly place, where they will feel safe using their new language skills and where they may find intrinsic motivation for communicating in English.

To enhance academic achievement, teachers can: create a language-rich classroom; provide students with advance organizers; label everything in the classroom to build vocabulary and help students make connections to their native language; and have different media available for student use (books, magazines, newspapers, audio-tapes, video tapes, computer software) to address different learning styles and also help build connections. To help students to use English in appropriate ways, teachers should teach what language is appropriate in what setting so students can determine when to speak and in what way (for example, formal speech or slang). Teachers should also recognize diversity and sameness in their classrooms, incorporate multicultural literature into the curriculum, and invite parents/family members to share their cultures and talents with the class. Students need to develop an understanding of and appreciation for others considering the diversity of society.

There are some important understandings that apply more particularly to language learning. Language teachers need to know, in particular, about the work of Rod Ellis and about the concept of intercultural communicative language teaching.

Ellis (2003) recommends task-based language learning. He describes an effective language learning task as one that:

requires the students to focus primarily on meaning;
has some kind of gap that the students can close by communicating;
requires the students to construct their own productive language (language output); rather than only to manipulate language that the teacher provides (language input); and
has a clearly defined outcome (other than producing “correct” language).
Language teachers can construct tasks that reflect real-life communication as closely as possible and that establish a genuine need for communication. For example, teachers can ask their students to seek or provide the information needed to complete a task successfully. If an activity involves a student asking to be told something that they already know, the activity is not a communicative one – and the students are not likely to find it rewarding.

Strategy training sequence used in cognitive academic language learning approach
Investigation shows language learning strategies can be taught through strategy training. According to MacIntyre & Noels (1996) students can benefit from this kind of instruction if they can understand the strategy itself, perceive it to be effective and do not consider its implementation to be too difficult.

There are different models for teaching learning strategies. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) propose a model that involves a sequence of five steps. In this model, teachers first help students identify the strategies they are already using, then they present and explain a new strategy. At this stage, the teacher might model the new strategy. Next, students practice the new strategy, at first with considerable support but then encouraging autonomous use. Finally, students evaluate their success and develop transfer of strategies to new tasks.

Preparation

Develop student awareness of different strategies through small group retrospective interviews about school tasks, modeling think-aloud then having students think aloud in small groups, discussion of interviews and think-aloud.

Presentation

Develop student knowledge about strategies by providing rationale for strategy use, describing and naming strategy, and modeling strategy.

Practice

Develop student skills in using strategies for academic learning through co-operative learning tasks, think-aloud while problem solving, peer tutoring in academic tasks, group discussions.

Evaluation

Develop student ability to evaluate own strategy use through writing strategies used immediately after task, discussing strategy use in class, keeping dialogue journals (with teacher) on strategy use.

Expansion

Develop transfer of strategies to new tasks by discussions on metacognitive and motivational aspects of strategy use, additional practice on similar academic tasks, assignments to use learning strategies on tasks related to cultural backgrounds of students’ (O’Malley and Chamot 1990).

Providing ample opportunities for planning

However well prepared and experienced, an individual teacher may be in working with English language learners, providing high-quality instruction and programming requires teamwork. Quality programs that serve ELLs should involve extensive coordination and planning among staff. Too often, the planning time provided to teachers of English language learners is inadequate. In order to coordinate goals, align curricula, and ensure positive transitions for ELLs as they move through a program, adequate time for planning—including long-range planning that considers student development—is essential. When they are given sufficient time for collaboration and planning, teachers and others in programs that serve ELLs may ensure that the instruction and goals they develop for these students are part of a well-articulated framework based upon practices that are developmentally appropriate, with long-term goals and achievement in mind.
The kind of planning that teachers of ELLs should be engaging in involves developmentally appropriate practice that takes into account the cognitive and social needs of students. What Greenburg (1990) calls the cognitive/developmental approach is generally considered to be the most effective, as it considers what students may be able to do at various stages of development. This approach involves different types of learning, such as social learning, physical learning and play, emotional learning, and intellectual and academic learning. Nissani (1990) summarizes this approach as one in which “children are encouraged to become involved in purposeful and creative activities with other children; to make major choices among hands-on learning activities; to initiate and accomplish self-motivated tasks in a rich environment; and to construct knowledge at their own individual pace by discovering and engaging in open-ended activities that reflect all areas of their development” (p. 3). This kind of approach tends to be highly student centered and keeps students’ developmental needs in mind by allowing them to learn at their own pace and in their own learning styles. It involves a great deal of creativity on the part of the teacher, who continually develops ways for students to interact in hands-on tasks and activities in which they may construct their own meaning through interaction.

Barriers to Meaningful Instruction for English Learners

Effective ways teachers can help ESL students overcome barriers to meaningful instruction. Teachers can use strategies based on social interactionist theory to create classroom conditions that foster learning by modeling, scaffolding and helping students to construct understanding, with the eventual goal of becoming independent thinkers and problem solvers. (Meyer, 2000) identifies four loads as barriers to meaningful instruction: cognitive load, culture load, language load and learning load; and she states teachers must be skilled at lowering these barriers and sparking student interest and curiosity by developing a creative, wise and passionate curriculum.

‘Cognitive load’ refers to the number of new concepts embedded in a lesson. Teachers must then fill in any conceptual gaps by trying to relate new concepts to life experiences of ESL students. Thus, it becomes more critical to get to know and understand these students.

‘Culture load’ refers to the way language and culture are related and the amount of cultural knowledge required to comprehend meaning or participate in an activity. Culture load also refers to how teachers expect interaction to occur in a classroom. This would include when to speak, when to stay silent, when to raise hands and when to write. These expectations vary from one culture to the next. English learners are often expected to determine the classroom behavioral norms independently.

The next barrier, the ‘language load,’ refers to the number of unfamiliar words encountered as an English learner reads a text or listens to teacher or peer academic talk. Teachers can lighten this load by rewriting or explaining text material. Complex sentences can be broken down into comprehensible parts.

The ‘learning load’ represents what teachers expect students to do with English in the learning activities. . An example offered by the author is brainstorming, an activity that is oral and fast-paced, with few visual examples and minimal clarification in the initial stages. Thus, teachers must carefully consider the learning load of all activities involving English learners, making adaptations and offering supports accordingly. This strategy involves the teacher doing the initial talking about a new topic and students listening before any brainstorming or other activity is assigned. This strategy is also effective with English speaking students. It prepares students to participate by helping to familiarize them with vocabulary and develop their thoughts on a topic.

Conclusion

One of the tasks of a language teacher is to help students become autonomous learners. This can be done by assisting students to develop learning strategies. This paper has provided a brief overview of LLS and noted a number of contacts that readers may use in networking on LLS in L2/FL education. Using LLS and LLS training in the L2/FL class not only encourages learners in their language learning but also helps teachers reflect on and improve their teaching.

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Melahat Jahansouz (MA – English Teaching) has been teaching English in Azad university and in The University of Applied Science and Technology for 6 years. She has translated 5 books in psychology field in Persian.

Introduction

Definitions of Language Learning Strategies
Within L2/FL education, a number of definitions of LLS have been used by key figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language — to incorporate these into one’s interlanguage competence” (p. 67). Rubin (1987) later wrote that LS “are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly” (p. 22). In their seminal study, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p. 1). Finally, building on work in her book for teachers (Oxford, 1990), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS (i.e., “In learning ESL, Trang watches U.S. TV soap operas, guessing the meaning of new expressions and predicting what will come next”) and this helpful definition: